Bacillus thuringiensis

Bacillus thuringiensis
Spores and bipyramidal crystals of Bacillus thuringiensis morrisoni strain T08025
Scientific classification
Domain:	Bacteria
Phylum:	Bacillota
Class:	Bacilli
Order:	Bacillales
Family:	Bacillaceae
Genus:	Bacillus
Species:	B. thuringiensis
Binomial name
Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner 1915
Subspecies
subsp. "aizawai" Oeda et al. 1987 subsp. "berliner" Klier et al. 1982 subsp. "colmeri" De Lucca et al. 1984 subsp. "coreanensis" Mizuki et al. 1999 subsp. "darmstadiensis" Ohba et al. 1979 subsp. "dendrolimus" Chen et al. 2004 subsp. "fukuokaensis" Ohba and Aizawa 1989 subsp. "galleriae" Sakanian et al. 1982 subsp. "guiyangiensis" Li et al. 1999 subsp. "higo" Ohba et al. 1995 subsp. "israelensis" Barjac 1978 subsp. "jinghongiensis" Li et al. 1999 subsp. "kurstaki" Bulla et al. 1979 subsp. "morrisoni" Cantwell et al. 1982 subsp. "oswaldocruzi" Rabinovitch et al. 1995 subsp. "pakistani" Barjac et al. 1977 subsp. "shandongiensis" Wang et al. 1986 subsp. "sotto" Shibano et al. 1985 subsp. "tenebrionis" Krieg et al. 1983 subsp. "thompsoni" Calabrese and Nickerson 1980 subsp. "toguchini" Khodyrev 1990 subsp. "tolworthi" Sick et al. 1990 subsp. "toumanoffii" Krieg 1969 subsp. "wuhanensis" Kuo and Chak 1996

Gram stain of Bacillus thuringiensis under 1000 × magnification

Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. B. thuringiensis also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, flour mills and grain-storage facilities. ^{[1] [2]} It has also been observed to parasitize moths such as Cadra calidella —in laboratory experiments working with C. calidella, many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite. ^[3]

During sporulation, many Bt strains produce crystal proteins (proteinaceous inclusions), called delta endotoxins, that have insecticidal action. This has led to their use as insecticides, and more recently to genetically modified crops using Bt genes, such as Bt corn. ^[4] Many crystal-producing Bt strains, though, do not have insecticidal properties. ^[5] The subspecies israelensis is commonly used for control of mosquitoes ^[6] and of fungus gnats. ^[7]

As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture. Other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the cry protein, and therefore are not affected by Bt. ^{[8] [9]}

Taxonomy and discovery

In 1902, B. thuringiensis was first discovered in silkworms by Japanese sericultural engineer Ishiwatari Shigetane (石渡 繁胤). He named it B. sotto, ^[10] using the Japanese word sottō (卒倒, 'collapse'), here referring to bacillary paralysis. ^[11] In 1911, German microbiologist Ernst Berliner rediscovered it when he isolated it as the cause of a disease called Schlaffsucht in flour moth caterpillars in Thuringia (hence the specific name thuringiensis, "Thuringian"). ^[12] B. sotto would later be reassigned as B. thuringiensis var. sotto. ^[13]

In 1976, Robert A. Zakharyan reported the presence of a plasmid in a strain of B. thuringiensis and suggested the plasmid's involvement in endospore and crystal formation. ^{[14] [15]} B. thuringiensis is closely related to B. cereus , a soil bacterium, and B. anthracis , the cause of anthrax; the three organisms differ mainly in their plasmids. ^{[16] : 34–35} Like other members of the genus, all three are capable of producing endospores. ^[1]

Species group placement

B. thuringiensis is placed in the Bacillus cereus group which is variously defined as: seven closely related species: B. cereussensu stricto ( B. cereus ), B. anthracis , B. thuringiensis, B. mycoides , B. pseudomycoides , and B. cytotoxicus ; ^[17] or as six species in a Bacillus cereus sensu lato: B. weihenstephanensis , B. mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. cereus, B. thuringiensis, and B. anthracis. Within this grouping B.t. is more closely related to B.ce. It is more distantly related to B.w., B.m., B.p., and B.cy. ^[18]

Subspecies

There are several dozen recognized subspecies of B. thuringiensis. Subspecies commonly used as insecticides include B. thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki (Btk), subspecies israelensis (Bti) and subspecies aizawai (Bta). ^{[19] [20] [21] [22]} Some Bti lineages are clonal. ^[18]

Genetics

Some strains are known to carry the same genes that produce enterotoxins in B. cereus, and so it is possible that the entire B. cereus sensu lato group may have the potential to be enteropathogens. ^[18]

The proteins that B. thuringiensis is most known for are encoded by cry genes. ^[23] In most strains of B. thuringiensis, these genes are located on a plasmid (in other words cry is not a chromosomal gene in most strains). ^{[24] [25] [26] [18]} If these plasmids are lost it becomes indistinguishable from B. cereus as B. thuringiensis has no other species characteristics. Plasmid exchange has been observed both naturally and experimentally both within B.t. and between B.t. and two congeners, B. cereus and B. mycoides. ^[18]

plcR is an indispensable transcription regulator of most virulence factors, its absence greatly reducing virulence and toxicity. Some strains do naturally complete their life cycle with an inactivated plcR. It is half of a two-gene operon along with the heptapeptide papR. papR is part of quorum sensing in B. thuringiensis. ^[18]

Various strains including Btk ATCC 33679 carry plasmids belonging to the wider pXO1-like family. (The pXO1 family being a B. cereus-common family with members of ≈330kb length. They differ from pXO1 by replacement of the pXO1 pathogenicity island.) The insect parasite Btk HD73 carries a pXO2-like plasmid (pBT9727) lacking the 35kb pathogenicity island of pXO2 itself, and in fact having no identifiable virulence factors. (The pXO2 family does not have replacement of the pathogenicity island, instead simply lacking that part of pXO2.) ^[18]

The genomes of the B. cereus group may contain two types of introns, dubbed group I and group II. B.t strains have variously 0–5 group Is and 0–13 group IIs. ^[18]

There is still insufficient information to determine whether chromosome-plasmid coevolution to enable adaptation to particular environmental niches has occurred or is even possible. ^[18]

Common with B. cereus but so far not found elsewhere – including in other members of the species group – are the efflux pump BC3663, the N-acyl-L-amino-acid amidohydrolase BC3664, and the methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein BC5034. ^[18]

Proteome

It has a similar proteome diversity to its close relative B. cereus. ^[18]

Into the BT Cotton protein is 'Crystal protein'.

Mechanism of insecticidal action

Upon sporulation, B. thuringiensis forms crystals of two types of proteinaceous insecticidal delta endotoxins (δ-endotoxins) called crystal proteins or Cry proteins, which are encoded by cry genes, and Cyt proteins. ^[23]

Cry toxins have specific activities against insect species of the orders Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles) and Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies), as well as against nematodes. ^{[27] [28]} A specific example of B. thuringiensis use against beetles is the fight against Colorado Potato Beetles in potato crops. Thus, B. thuringiensis serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops. When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with proteases found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal. ^[24] The Cry toxin is then inserted into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing the digestive tract and forming a pore. ^[29] The insect stops eating and starves to death; live Bt bacteria may also colonize the insect, which can contribute to death. ^{[24] [29] [30]} Death occurs within a few hours or weeks. ^[31] The midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae may be required for B. thuringiensis insecticidal activity. ^[32]

A B. thuringiensis small RNA called BtsR1 can silence the Cry5Ba toxin expression when outside the host by binding to the RBS site of the Cry5Ba toxin transcript to avoid nematode behavioral defenses. The silencing results in an increase of the bacteria ingestion by C. elegans . The expression of BtsR1 is then reduced after ingestion, resulting in Cry5Ba toxin production and host death. ^[33]

In 1996 another class of insecticidal proteins in Bt was discovered: the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip; InterPro :  IPR022180 ). ^{[34] [35]} Vip proteins do not share sequence homology with Cry proteins, in general do not compete for the same receptors, and some kill different insects than do Cry proteins. ^[34]

In 2000, a novel subgroup of Cry protein, designated parasporin, was discovered from non-insecticidal B. thuringiensis isolates. ^[36] The proteins of parasporin group are defined as B. thuringiensis and related bacterial parasporal proteins that are not hemolytic, but capable of preferentially killing cancer cells. ^[37] As of January 2013, parasporins comprise six subfamilies: PS1 to PS6. ^[38]

Use of spores and proteins in pest control

Spores and crystalline insecticidal proteins produced by B. thuringiensis have been used to control insect pests since the 1920s and are often applied as liquid sprays. ^[39] They are now used as specific insecticides under trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects, and are used in organic farming; ^[28] however, the manuals for these products do contain many environmental and human health warnings, ^{[40] [41]} and a 2012 European regulatory peer review of five approved strains found, while data exist to support some claims of low toxicity to humans and the environment, the data are insufficient to justify many of these claims. ^[42]

New strains of Bt are developed and introduced over time ^[43] as insects develop resistance to Bt, ^[44] or the desire occurs to force mutations to modify organism characteristics ^{[45] [ clarification needed ]}, or to use homologous recombinant genetic engineering to improve crystal size and increase pesticidal activity, ^[46] or broaden the host range of Bt and obtain more effective formulations. ^[47] Each new strain is given a unique number and registered with the U.S. EPA ^[48] and allowances may be given for genetic modification depending on "its parental strains, the proposed pesticide use pattern, and the manner and extent to which the organism has been genetically modified". ^[49] Formulations of Bt that are approved for organic farming in the US are listed at the website of the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) ^[50] and several university extension websites offer advice on how to use Bt spore or protein preparations in organic farming. ^{[51] [29]}

Use of Bt genes in genetic engineering of plants for pest control

The Belgian company Plant Genetic Systems (now part of Bayer CropScience) was the first company (in 1985) to develop genetically modified crops (tobacco) with insect tolerance by expressing cry genes from B. thuringiensis; the resulting crops contain delta endotoxin. ^{[52] [53]} The Bt tobacco was never commercialized; tobacco plants are used to test genetic modifications since they are easy to manipulate genetically and are not part of the food supply. ^{[54] [55]}

Bt toxins present in peanut leaves (bottom dish) protect it from extensive damage caused to unprotected peanut leaves by lesser cornstalk borer larvae (top dish).

Usage

In 1995, potato plants producing CRY 3A Bt toxin were approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, making it the first human-modified pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the US, ^{[57] [58]} though many plants produce pesticides naturally, including tobacco, coffee plants, cocoa, cotton and black walnut. This was the 'New Leaf' potato, and it was removed from the market in 2001 due to lack of interest. ^[59]

In 1996, genetically modified maize producing Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae. ^[60]

The Bt genes engineered into crops and approved for release include, singly and stacked: Cry1A.105, CryIAb, CryIF, Cry2Ab, Cry3Bb1, Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1, mCry3A, and VIP, and the engineered crops include corn and cotton. ^{[61] [62] : 285ff}

Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010. ^[63]

In India, by 2014, more than seven million cotton farmers, occupying twenty-six million acres, had adopted Bt cotton. ^[64]

Monsanto developed a soybean expressing Cry1Ac and the glyphosate-resistance gene for the Brazilian market, which completed the Brazilian regulatory process in 2010. ^{[65] [66]}

Bt aspen - specifically Populus hybrids - have been developed. They do suffer lesser leaf damage from insect herbivory. The results have not been entirely positive however: The intended result - better timber yield - was not achieved, with no growth advantage despite that reduction in herbivore damage; one of their major pests still preys upon the transgenic trees; and besides that, their leaf litter decomposes differently due to the transgenic toxins, resulting in alterations to the aquatic insect populations nearby. ^[67]

Agriculture enthusiasts examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn

Safety studies

The use of Bt toxins as plant-incorporated protectants prompted the need for extensive evaluation of their safety for use in foods and potential unintended impacts on the environment. ^[68]

Dietary risk assessment

Concerns over the safety of consumption of genetically modified plant materials that contain Cry proteins have been addressed in extensive dietary risk assessment studies. As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture. While the target pests are exposed to the toxins primarily through leaf and stalk material, Cry proteins are also expressed in other parts of the plant, including trace amounts in maize kernels which are ultimately consumed by both humans and animals. ^[69] However, other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the cry protein, and therefore are not affected by Bt. ^{[8] [9]}

Toxicology studies

Animal models have been used to assess human health risk from consumption of products containing Cry proteins. The United States Environmental Protection Agency recognizes mouse acute oral feeding studies where doses as high as 5,000 mg/kg body weight resulted in no observed adverse effects. ^[70] Research on other known toxic proteins suggests that toxicity occurs at much lower doses^{[ clarification needed ]}, further suggesting that Bt toxins are not toxic to mammals. ^[71] The results of toxicology studies are further strengthened by the lack of observed toxicity from decades of use of B. thuringiensis and its crystalline proteins as an insecticidal spray. ^[72]

Allergenicity studies

Introduction of a new protein raised concerns regarding the potential for allergic responses in sensitive individuals. Bioinformatic analysis of known allergens has indicated there is no concern of allergic reactions as a result of consumption of Bt toxins. ^[73] Additionally, skin prick testing using purified Bt protein resulted in no detectable production of toxin-specific IgE antibodies, even in atopic patients. ^[74]

Digestibility studies

Studies have been conducted to evaluate the fate of Bt toxins that are ingested in foods. Bt toxin proteins have been shown to digest within minutes of exposure to simulated gastric fluids. ^[75] The instability of the proteins in digestive fluids is an additional indication that Cry proteins are unlikely to be allergenic, since most known food allergens resist degradation and are ultimately absorbed in the small intestine. ^[76]

Persistence in environment

Concerns over possible environmental impact from accumulation of Bt toxins from plant tissues, pollen dispersal, and direct secretion from roots have been investigated. Bt toxins may persist in soil for over 200 days, with half-lives between 1.6 and 22 days. Much of the toxin is initially degraded rapidly by microorganisms in the environment, while some is adsorbed by organic matter and persists longer. ^[77] Some studies, in contrast, claim that the toxins do not persist in the soil. ^{[77] [78] [79]} Bt toxins are less likely to accumulate in bodies of water, but pollen shed or soil runoff may deposit them in an aquatic ecosystem. Fish species are not susceptible to Bt toxins if exposed. ^[80]

Impact on non-target organisms

The toxic nature of Bt proteins has an adverse impact on many major crop pests, but some ecological risk assessments has been conducted to ensure safety of beneficial non-target organisms that may come into contact with the toxins. Toxicity for the monarch butterfly, has been shown to not reach dangerous levels. ^[81] Most soil-dwelling organisms, potentially exposed to Bt toxins through root exudates, are probably not impacted by the growth of Bt crops. ^[82]

Insect resistance

Multiple insects have developed a resistance to B. thuringiensis. In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found the pink bollworm had become resistant to the first-generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India - that generation expresses one Bt gene, Cry1Ac. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto anywhere in the world. ^{[83] [84]} Monsanto responded by introducing a second-generation cotton with multiple Bt proteins, which was rapidly adopted. ^[83] Bollworm resistance to first-generation Bt cotton was also identified in Australia, China, Spain, and the United States. ^[85] Additionally, resistance to Bt was documented in field population of diamondback moth in Hawaii, the continental US, and Asia. ^[86] Studies in the cabbage looper have suggested that a mutation in the membrane transporter ABCC2 can confer resistance to Bt Cry1Ac. ^[87]

Secondary pests

Several studies have documented surges in "sucking pests" (which are not affected by Bt toxins) within a few years of adoption of Bt cotton. In China, the main problem has been with mirids, ^{[88] [89]} which have in some cases "completely eroded all benefits from Bt cotton cultivation". ^[90] The increase in sucking pests depended on local temperature and rainfall conditions and increased in half the villages studied. The increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. ^[91] Another study in five provinces in China found the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars is significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere, consistent with the hypothesis suggested by recent studies that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as aphids, spider mites, and lygus bugs. ^[92]

Similar problems have been reported in India, with both mealy bugs ^{[93] [94]} and aphids ^[95] although a survey of small Indian farms between 2002 and 2008 concluded Bt cotton adoption has led to higher yields and lower pesticide use, decreasing over time. ^[96]

Controversies

The controversies surrounding Bt use are among the many genetically modified food controversies more widely. ^[97]

Lepidopteran toxicity

The most publicised problem associated with Bt crops is the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the monarch butterfly. ^[98] The paper produced a public uproar and demonstrations against Bt maize; however by 2001 several follow-up studies coordinated by the USDA had asserted that "the most common types of Bt maize pollen are not toxic to monarch larvae in concentrations the insects would encounter in the fields." ^{[99] [100] [101] [102]} Similarly, B. thuringiensis has been widely used for controlling Spodoptera littoralis larvae growth due to their detrimental pest activities in Africa and Southern Europe. However, S. littoralis showed resistance to many strains of B. thuriginesis and were only effectively controlled by a few strains. ^[103]

Wild maize genetic mixing

A study published in Nature in 2001 reported Bt-containing maize genes were found in maize in its center of origin, Oaxaca, Mexico. ^[104] Another Nature paper published in 2002 claimed that the previous paper's conclusion was the result of an artifact caused by an inverse polymerase chain reaction and that "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper." ^[105] A significant controversy happened over the paper and Nature's unprecedented notice. ^[106]

A subsequent large-scale study in 2005 failed to find any evidence of genetic mixing in Oaxaca. ^[107] A 2007 study found the "transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers' fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities." Mexico imports a substantial amount of maize from the U.S., and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, many potential routes are available for transgenic maize to enter into food and feed webs. ^[108] One study found small-scale (about 1%) introduction of transgenic sequences in sampled fields in Mexico; it did not find evidence for or against this introduced genetic material being inherited by the next generation of plants. ^{[109] [110]} That study was immediately criticized, with the reviewer writing, "Genetically, any given plant should be either non-transgenic or transgenic, therefore for leaf tissue of a single transgenic plant, a GMO level close to 100% is expected. In their study, the authors chose to classify leaf samples as transgenic despite GMO levels of about 0.1%. We contend that results such as these are incorrectly interpreted as positive and are more likely to be indicative of contamination in the laboratory." ^[111]

Colony collapse disorder

As of 2007, a new phenomenon called colony collapse disorder (CCD) began affecting bee hives all over North America. Initial speculation on possible causes included new parasites, pesticide use, ^[112] and the use of Bt transgenic crops. ^[113] The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium found no evidence that pollen from Bt crops is adversely affecting bees. ^{[99] [114]} According to the USDA, "Genetically modified (GM) crops, most commonly Bt corn, have been offered up as the cause of CCD. But there is no correlation between where GM crops are planted and the pattern of CCD incidents. Also, GM crops have been widely planted since the late 1990s, but CCD did not appear until 2006. In addition, CCD has been reported in countries that do not allow GM crops to be planted, such as Switzerland. German researchers have noted in one study a possible correlation between exposure to Bt pollen and compromised immunity to Nosema ." ^[115] The actual cause of CCD was unknown in 2007, and scientists believe it may have multiple exacerbating causes. ^[116]

Beta-exotoxins

Some isolates of B. thuringiensis produce a class of insecticidal small molecules called beta-exotoxin, the common name for which is thuringiensin. ^[117] A consensus document produced by the OECD says: "Beta-exotoxins are known to be toxic to humans and almost all other forms of life and its presence is prohibited in B. thuringiensis microbial products". ^[118] Thuringiensins are nucleoside analogues. They inhibit RNA polymerase activity, a process common to all forms of life, in rats and bacteria alike. ^[119]

Other hosts

Opportunistic pathogen of animals other than insects, causing necrosis, pulmonary infection, and/or food poisoning. How common this is, is unknown, because these are always taken to be B. cereus infections and are rarely tested for the Cry and Cyt proteins that are the only factor distinguishing B. thuringiensis from B. cereus. ^[18]

New nomenclature for pesticidal proteins (Bt toxins)

Bacillus thuringiensis is no longer the sole source of pesticidal proteins. The Bacterial Pesticidal Protein Resource Center (BPPRC) provides information on the rapidly expanding field of pesticidal proteins for academics, regulators, and research and development personnel. ^{[120] [121] [122]}

See also

An ovitrap collects eggs from mosquitoes. The brown granules in the water are a B. t. israelensis preparation that kills hatched larvae.

• Biological insecticides
• Genetically modified food
• Western corn rootworm
• Cry1Ac
• Diamondback moth
• Sterile insect technique

References

1. Madigan MT, Martinko JM, eds. (2005). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN   978-0-13-144329-7.^{[ page needed ]}
2. du Rand N (July 2009). Isolation of Entomopathogenic Gram Positive Spore Forming Bacteria Effective Against Coleoptera (PhD thesis). Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal. hdl:10413/1235.^{[ page needed ]}
3. Cox PD (1975). "The influence of photoperiod on the life-cycles of Ephestia calidella (Guenee) and Ephestia figulilella Gregson (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)". J. Stored Prod. Res. 11 (2): 77. doi:10.1016/0022-474X(75)90043-0.
4. Kumar PA, Sharma RP, Malik VS (1996). "The Insecticidal Proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis". Advances in Applied Microbiology Volume 42. Vol. 42. pp. 1–43. doi:10.1016/s0065-2164(08)70371-x. ISBN   978-0-12-002642-5. PMID   8865583.
5. Roh JY, Choi JY, Li MS, Jin BR, Je YH (April 2007). "Bacillus thuringiensis as a specific, safe, and effective tool for insect pest control". Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 17 (4): 547–59. PMID   18051264.
6. "Bti for Mosquito Control". EPA.gov. US EPA. 2016-07-05. Retrieved 28 June 2018.
7. "Fungus Gnats Management Guidelines--UC IPM". ipm.ucanr.edu. University of California Integrated Pest Management.
8. Hall H (May 30, 2006). "Bt corn: is it worth the risk?". The Science Creative Quarterly.
9. Dorsch JA, Candas M, Griko NB, Maaty WS, Midboe EG, Vadlamudi RK, Bulla LA (September 2002). "Cry1A toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis bind specifically to a region adjacent to the membrane-proximal extracellular domain of BT-R(1) in Manduca sexta: involvement of a cadherin in the entomopathogenicity of Bacillus thuringiensis". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 32 (9): 1025–36. doi:10.1016/S0965-1748(02)00040-1. PMID   12213239.
10. New Innovative Pesticides. EPA. 1977. p. 61. In 1915 the bacterium was re-examined and named Bacillus sotto. [...] At about the same time, Beriner was isolating the organism
11. Natural Enemies in the Pacific Area: Biological Control. Fukuoka Entomological Society. 1967. p. 99. "Sotto" in Japanese means "sudden collapse" or "fainting", and "sotto" of Bacillus thuringiensis var. sotto derives its name from the "sotto" disease.
12. Reardon RC, Dubois NR, McLane W (1994). Bacillus thuringiensis for managing gypsy moth: a review. United States Department of Agriculture. Mediterranean flour moths, Ephestia (=Anagasta) kuehniella (Zeller), that were found in stored grain in Thuringia {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
13. Steinhaus E (2012). Insect Pathology: An Advanced Treatise. Elsevier. p. 32. ISBN   978-0-323-14317-2. Bacillus sottoIshiwata [→] Taxonomic reassignment: Bacillus thuringiensis var. sottoIshiwata. [Heimpel and Angus, 1960]
14. Zakharyan RA, Israelyan YK, Agabalyan AS, Tatevosyan PE, Akopyan S, Afrikyan EK (1979). "Plasmid DNA from Bacillus thuringiensis". Microbiologiya. 48 (2): 226–229. ISSN   0026-3656.
15. Cheng TC, ed. (1984). Pathogens of invertebrates: application in biological control and transmission mechanisms . p.  159. ISBN   978-0-306-41700-9.
16. Økstad OA, Kolstø A (2011). "Genomics of Bacillus Species". In Wiedmann M, Zhang W (eds.). Genomics of Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. pp. 29–53. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7686-4_2. ISBN   978-1-4419-7685-7.
17. Guinebretière MH, Auger S, Galleron N, Contzen M, De Sarrau B, De Buyser ML, et al. (January 2013). "Bacillus cytotoxicus sp. nov. is a novel thermotolerant species of the Bacillus cereus Group occasionally associated with food poisoning". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 63 (Pt 1): 31–40. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.030627-0. PMID   22328607. S2CID   2407509.
18. Kolstø AB, Tourasse NJ, Økstad OA (2009). "What sets Bacillus anthracis apart from other Bacillus species?". Annual Review of Microbiology. 63 (1). Annual Reviews: 451–476. doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.091208.073255. PMID   19514852.
19. US EPA, OCSPP (2016-07-05). "Bti for Mosquito Control". US EPA. Retrieved 2021-05-10.
20. "Information on Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki (Btk) Excerpts from a Forestry Technical Manual produced by Valent BioSciences, manufacturers of Foray® and DiPel®, two formulations of commercially produced Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk)" (PDF). Fs.usda.gov. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
21. Ellis JA. "Commonly Asked Questions About Btk (Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki)" (PDF). Department of Entomology, Purdue University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
22. "Bacillus thuringiensis aizawai strain NB200 (006494) Fact sheet" (PDF). 3.epa.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-20. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
23. Circkmore N. "Bacillus thuringiensis toxin nomenclature". Archived from the original on 9 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
24. Dean DH (1984). "Biochemical genetics of the bacterial insect-control agent Bacillus thuringiensis: basic principles and prospects for genetic engineering". Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering Reviews. 2: 341–363. doi: 10.1080/02648725.1984.10647804 . PMID   6443645.
25. Beegle CC, Yamamoto T (1992). "Invitation Paper (C.p. Alexander Fund): History Of bacillus Thuringiensis berliner Research and Development". The Canadian Entomologist. 124 (4): 587–616. doi:10.4039/Ent124587-4. S2CID   86763021.
26. Xu J, Liu Q, Yin X, Zhu S (2006). "A review of recent development of Bacillus thuringiensis ICP genetically engineered microbes". Entomological Journal of East China. 15 (1): 53–8.
27. Schnepf E, Crickmore N, Van Rie J, Lereclus D, Baum J, Feitelson J, Zeigler DR, Dean DH (September 1998). "Bacillus thuringiensis and its pesticidal crystal proteins". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 62 (3): 775–806. doi:10.1128/MMBR.62.3.775-806.1998. PMC   98934 . PMID   9729609.
28. Wei JZ, Hale K, Carta L, Platzer E, Wong C, Fang SC, Aroian RV (March 2003). "Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins that target nematodes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (5): 2760–5. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.2760W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0538072100 . PMC   151414 . PMID   12598644.
29. Cranshaw WS (26 March 2013). "Bacillus thuringiensis Fact Sheet". Colorado State University Extension Office. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
30. Babu M, Geetha M. "DNA shuffling of Cry proteins". Mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2010-02-12. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
31. "Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) General Fact Sheet". npic.orst.edu. Retrieved 2021-01-04.
32. Broderick NA, Raffa KF, Handelsman J (October 2006). "Midgut bacteria required for Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal activity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (41): 15196–9. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10315196B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0604865103 . JSTOR   30051525. PMC   1622799 . PMID   17005725.
33. Peng D, Luo X, Zhang N, Guo S, Zheng J, Chen L, Sun M (January 2018). "Small RNA-mediated Cry toxin silencing allows Bacillus thuringiensis to evade Caenorhabditis elegans avoidance behavioral defenses". Nucleic Acids Research. 46 (1): 159–173. doi:10.1093/nar/gkx959. PMC   5758910 . PMID   29069426.
34. Palma L, Hernández-Rodríguez CS, Maeztu M, Hernández-Martínez P, Ruiz de Escudero I, Escriche B, Muñoz D, Van Rie J, Ferré J, Caballero P (October 2012). "Vip3C, a novel class of vegetative insecticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 78 (19): 7163–5. Bibcode:2012ApEnM..78.7163P. doi:10.1128/AEM.01360-12. PMC   3457495 . PMID   22865065.
35. Estruch JJ, Warren GW, Mullins MA, Nye GJ, Craig JA, Koziel MG (May 1996). "Vip3A, a novel Bacillus thuringiensis vegetative insecticidal protein with a wide spectrum of activities against lepidopteran insects". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (11): 5389–94. Bibcode:1996PNAS...93.5389E. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.11.5389 . PMC   39256 . PMID   8643585.
36. Mizuki E, Park YS, Saitoh H, Yamashita S, Akao T, Higuchi K, Ohba M (July 2000). "Parasporin, a human leukemic cell-recognizing parasporal protein of Bacillus thuringiensis". Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 7 (4): 625–34. doi:10.1128/CDLI.7.4.625-634.2000. PMC   95925 . PMID   10882663.
37. Ohba M, Mizuki E, Uemori A (January 2009). "Parasporin, a new anticancer protein group from Bacillus thuringiensis". Anticancer Research. 29 (1): 427–33. PMID   19331182.
38. "List of Parasporins". Official Website of the Committee of Parasporin Classification and Nomenclature. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
39. Lemaux PG (2008). "Genetically Engineered Plants and Foods: A Scientist's Analysis of the Issues (Part I)". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 59: 771–812. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.58.032806.103840. PMID   18284373.
40. "DiPelProDf data sheet" (PDF). Valent U.S.A Corporation. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 8, 2013.
41. "DiPelProDf data sheet" (PDF). Valent U.S.A Corporation. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 13, 2014.
42. "Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (strains ABTS 351, PB 54, SA 11, SA 12, EG 2348)". EFSA Journal. 10 (2): 2540. August 8, 2012. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2540 .
43. Rubin AL (2010). "Microbial Pest Control Agents: Use Patterns, Registration Requirements, and Mammalian Toxicity". In Krieger R (ed.). Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology. Vol. 1. Academic Press, imprint of Elsevier. pp. 442–443. ISBN   978-0-08-092201-0.
44. Huang F, Buschman LL, Higgins RA (2001). "Larval feeding behavior of Dipel-resistant and susceptible Ostrinia nubilalis on diet containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Dipel EStm)". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 98 (2): 141–148. doi:10.1046/j.1570-7458.2001.00768.x. ISSN   0013-8703. S2CID   86218577.
45. US 4910016,Gaertner FH, Soares GC, Payne J,"Novel Bacillus thuringiensis isolate",issued 20 March 1990, assigned to Mycogen Corp. 
46. US 6303382,Adams LF, Thomas MD, Sloma AP, Widner WR,"Formation of and methods for the production of large bacillus thuringiensis crystals with increased pesticidal activity",issued 16 October 2001, assigned to Valent BioSciences LLC. 
47. USpatent 5955367,Adams LF,"Production of bacillus thuringiensis integrants",published 1999-09-21 
48. "Pesticides; Data Requirements for Biochemical and Microbial Pesticides". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
49. "40 CFR § 158.2100 - Microbial pesticides definition and applicability". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
50. "Search: bacillus, thuringiensis". OMRI.
51. Caldwell B, Sideman E, Seaman A, Shelton A, Smart C, eds. (2013). "Material Fact Sheet: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)" (PDF). Resource Guide for Organic Insect and Disease Management (2nd ed.). pp. 109–12. ISBN   978-0-9676507-8-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
52. Höfte H, de Greve H, Seurinck J, Jansens S, Mahillon J, Ampe C, et al. (December 1986). "Structural and functional analysis of a cloned delta endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis berliner 1715". European Journal of Biochemistry. 161 (2): 273–80. doi: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1986.tb10443.x . PMID   3023091.
53. Vaeck M, Reynaerts A, Höfte H, Jansens S, de Beuckeleer M, Dean C, et al. (1987). "Transgenic plants protected from insect attack". Nature. 328 (6125): 33–7. Bibcode:1987Natur.328...33V. doi:10.1038/328033a0. S2CID   4310501.
54. Staff (29 July 2010). ""Tobacco" entry in GMO Compass database". GMO Compass. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.
55. Key S, Ma JK, Drake PM (June 2008). "Genetically modified plants and human health". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 101 (6): 290–8. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2008.070372. PMC   2408621 . PMID   18515776.
56. Suszkiwn J (November 1999). "Tifton, Georgia: A Peanut Pest Showdown". Agricultural Research magazine. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
57. "Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops". Lawrence Journal-World. AP. 6 May 1995 – via Google News.
58. "Safety Assessment of NewLeaf ®Y Potatoes Protected Against Colorado Potato Beetle and Infection by Potato Virus Y Causing Rugose Mosaic" (PDF). www.cera-gmc.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
59. van Eijck P (March 10, 2010). "The History and Future of GM Potatoes". PotatoPro Newsletter. Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved October 5, 2013.
60. Hellmich RL, Hellmich KA (2012). "Use and Impact of Bt Maize". Nature Education Knowledge. 3 (10): 4.
61. Bessin R (November 2010) [May 1996]. "Bt-Corn for Corn Borer Control". University of Kentucky College of Agriculture.
62. Castagnola AS, Jurat-Fuentes JL (March 2012). "Bt Crops: Past and Future. Chapter 15". In Sansinenea E (ed.). Bacillus thuringiensis Biotechnology. Springer. ISBN   978-94-007-3020-5.
63. Hodgson E, Gassmann A (May 2010). "New Corn Trait Deregulated in U.S." Iowa State Extension, Department of Entomology.
64. Specter M (25 August 2014). "Seeds of Doubt: An activist's controversial crusade against genetically modified crops". The New Yorker .
65. Staff (August 2009). "Application for authorization to place on the market MON 87701 × MON 89788 soybean in the European Union, according to Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 on genetically modified food and feed" (PDF). Monsanto. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-05. Linked from the "MON87701 x MON89788". GMO Compass. Archived from the original on 2013-11-09.
66. "Monsanto's Bt Roundup Ready 2 Yield Soybeans Approved for Planting in Brazil". Crop Biotech Update. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). 27 August 2010.
67. Stange M, Barrett RD, Hendry AP (February 2021). "The importance of genomic variation for biodiversity, ecosystems and people". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 22 (2). Nature Research: 89–105. doi:10.1038/s41576-020-00288-7. PMID   33067582. S2CID   223559538.
68. "Are all forms of Bt toxin safe?". Gmoscience.org. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
69. Fearing PL, Brown D, Vlachos D, Meghji M, Privalle L (June 1997). "Quantitative analysis of CryIA (b) expression in Bt maize plants, tissues, and silage and stability of expression over successive generations". Molecular Breeding. 3 (3): 169–176. doi:10.1023/A:1009611613475. S2CID   34209572.
70. "Bt Plant-Incorporated Protectants October 15, 2001 Biopesticides Registration Action Document" (PDF). US EPA. 2001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-12-11. Retrieved 2022-04-09.
71. Sjoblad RD, McClintock JT, Engler R (February 1992). "Toxicological considerations for protein components of biological pesticide products". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 15 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1016/0273-2300(92)90078-n. PMID   1553409.
72. Koch MS, Ward JM, Levine SL, Baum JA, Vicini JL, Hammond BG (April 2015). "The food and environmental safety of Bt crops". Frontiers in Plant Science. 6: 283. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00283 . PMC   4413729 . PMID   25972882.
73. Randhawa GJ, Singh M, Grover M (February 2011). "Bioinformatic analysis for allergenicity assessment of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry proteins expressed in insect-resistant food crops". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49 (2): 356–62. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.008. PMID   21078358.
74. Batista R, Nunes B, Carmo M, Cardoso C, José HS, de Almeida AB, Manique A, Bento L, Ricardo CP, Oliveira MM (August 2005). "Lack of detectable allergenicity of transgenic maize and soya samples" (PDF). The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 116 (2): 403–10. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.04.014. hdl:10400.18/114. PMID   16083797.
75. Betz FS, Hammond BG, Fuchs RL (October 2000). "Safety and advantages of Bacillus thuringiensis-protected plants to control insect pests". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 32 (2): 156–73. doi:10.1006/rtph.2000.1426. PMID   11067772.
76. Astwood JD, Leach JN, Fuchs RL (October 1996). "Stability of food allergens to digestion in vitro". Nature Biotechnology. 14 (10): 1269–73. doi:10.1038/nbt1096-1269. PMID   9631091. S2CID   22780150.
77. Helassa N, Quiquampoix H, Staunton S (2013). "Structure, Biological Activity and Environmental Fate of Insecticidal Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) Cry Proteins of Bacterial and Genetically Modified Plant Origin". In Xu J, Sparks D (eds.). Molecular Environmental Soil Science. Springer Netherlands. pp. 49–77. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4177-5_3. ISBN   978-94-007-4177-5.
78. Dubelman S, Ayden BR, Bader BM, Brown CR, Jiang, Vlachos D (2005). "Cry1Ab Protein Does Not Persist in Soil After 3 Years of Sustained Bt Corn Use". Environ. Entomol. 34 (4): 915–921. doi: 10.1603/0046-225x-34.4.915 .
79. Head G, Surber JB, Watson JA, Martin JW, Duan JJ (2002). "No Detection of Cry1Ac Protein in Soil After Multiple Years of Transgenic Bt Cotton (Bollgard) Use". Environ. Entomol. 31 (1): 30–36. doi: 10.1603/0046-225x-31.1.30 .
80. Clark BW, Phillips TA, Coats JR (June 2005). "Environmental fate and effects of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) proteins from transgenic crops: a review" (PDF). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (12): 4643–53. doi:10.1021/jf040442k. hdl:10161/6458. PMID   15941295.
81. Sears MK, Hellmich RL, Stanley-Horn DE, Oberhauser KS, Pleasants JM, Mattila HR, Siegfried BD, Dively GP (October 2001). "Impact of Bt corn pollen on monarch butterfly populations: a risk assessment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (21): 11937–42. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9811937S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.211329998 . PMC   59819 . PMID   11559842.
82. Saxena D, Stotzky G (2000). "Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin released from root exudates and biomass of Bt corn has no apparent effect on earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, bacteria, and fungi in soil" (PDF). Soil Biology & Biochemistry. 33 (9): 1225–1230. doi:10.1016/s0038-0717(01)00027-x.
83. "Cotton in India". Monsanto.com. 2008-11-03. Retrieved 2013-07-09.
84. Bagla P (March 2010). "India. Hardy cotton-munching pests are latest blow to GM crops". Science. 327 (5972): 1439. Bibcode:2010Sci...327.1439B. doi: 10.1126/science.327.5972.1439 . PMID   20299559.
85. Tabashnik BE, Gassmann AJ, Crowder DW, Carriére Y (February 2008). "Insect resistance to Bt crops: evidence versus theory". Nature Biotechnology. 26 (2): 199–202. doi:10.1038/nbt1382. PMID   18259177. S2CID   205273664.
86. Tabshnik BE (January 1994). "Evolution of Resistance to Bacillus Thuringiensis". Annual Review of Entomology. 39: 47–79. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.39.010194.000403.
87. Baxter SW, Badenes-Pérez FR, Morrison A, Vogel H, Crickmore N, Kain W, Wang P, Heckel DG, Jiggins CD (October 2011). "Parallel evolution of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin resistance in lepidoptera". Genetics. 189 (2): 675–9. doi:10.1534/genetics.111.130971. PMC   3189815 . PMID   21840855.
88. Lu Y, Wu K, Jiang Y, Xia B, Li P, Feng H, Wyckhuys KA, Guo Y (May 2010). "Mirid bug outbreaks in multiple crops correlated with wide-scale adoption of Bt cotton in China". Science. 328 (5982): 1151–4. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1151L. doi: 10.1126/science.1187881 . PMID   20466880. S2CID   2093962.
89. Just DR, Wang S, Pinstrup-Andersen P (2006). Tarnishing Silver Bullets: Bt Technology Adoption, Bounded Rationality and the Outbreak of Secondary Pest Infestations in China. American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting. Long Beach, CA.
    • Lang S (July 25, 2006). "Seven-year glitch: Cornell warns that Chinese GM cotton farmers are losing money due to 'secondary' pests". Cornell Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2006-08-11.
90. Wang S, Just DR, Pinstrup-Andersen P (2008). "Bt-cotton and secondary pests". International Journal of Biotechnology. 10 (2/3): 113–21. doi:10.1504/IJBT.2008.018348.
91. Wang Z, Lin H, Huang J, Hu R, Rozelle S, Pray C (2009). "Bt Cotton in China: Are Secondary Insect Infestations Offsetting the Benefits in Farmer Fields?". Agricultural Sciences in China. 8: 83–90. doi:10.1016/S1671-2927(09)60012-2.
92. Zhao JH, Ho P, Azadi H (February 2011). "Benefits of Bt cotton counterbalanced by secondary pests? Perceptions of ecological change in China". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 173 (1–4): 985–994. doi:10.1007/s10661-010-1439-y. PMID   20437270. S2CID   1583208.; Erratum published 2012 Aug 5: Zhao JH, Ho P, Azadi H (2012). "Erratum to: Benefits of Bt cotton counterbalanced by secondary pests? Perceptions of ecological change in China". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 184 (11): 7079. doi: 10.1007/s10661-012-2699-5 .
93. Goswami B. "Making a meal of Bt cotton". InfoChange. Archived from the original on 16 June 2008. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
94. "Bug makes meal of Punjab cotton, whither Bt magic?". The Economic Times. 4 September 2007. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
95. Stone GD (2011). "Field versus Farm in Warangal: Bt Cotton, Higher Yields, and Larger Questions". World Development. 39 (3): 387–98. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.09.008.
96. Krishna VV, Qaim M (2012). "Bt cotton and sustainability of pesticide reductions in India". Agricultural Systems. 107: 47–55. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2011.11.005.
97. "Harvest of fear: viewpoints". Frontline/NOVA. Public Broadcasting Service. 2001. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
98. Losey JE, Rayor LS, Carter ME (May 1999). "Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae". Nature. 399 (6733): 214. Bibcode:1999Natur.399..214L. doi: 10.1038/20338 . PMID   10353241. S2CID   4424836.
99. Waltz E (2 September 2009). "GM crops: Battlefield". Nature News. 461 (7260): 27–32. doi:10.1038/461027a. PMID   19727179. S2CID   205048726.
100. Mendelsohn M, Kough J, Vaituzis Z, Matthews K (September 2003). "Are Bt crops safe?". Nature Biotechnology. 21 (9): 1003–9. doi:10.1038/nbt0903-1003. PMID   12949561. S2CID   16392889.
101. Hellmich RL, Siegfried BD, Sears MK, Stanley-Horn DE, Daniels MJ, Mattila HR, et al. (October 2001). "Monarch larvae sensitivity to Bacillus thuringiensis- purified proteins and pollen". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (21): 11925–30. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9811925H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.211297698 . JSTOR   3056825. PMC   59744 . PMID   11559841.
102. "Bt Corn and Monarch Butterflies". USDA Agricultural Research Service. 2004-03-29. Archived from the original on 6 November 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
103. Salama HS, Foda MS, Sharaby A (1989). "A proposed new biological standard for bioassay of bacterial insecticides vs. Spodoptera spp". Tropical Pest Management. 35 (3): 326–330. doi:10.1080/09670878909371391. Archived from the original on 2018-09-29. Retrieved 2017-11-12.
104. Quist D, Chapela IH (November 2001). "Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico". Nature. 414 (6863): 541–3. Bibcode:2001Natur.414..541Q. doi:10.1038/35107068. PMID   11734853. S2CID   4403182.
105. Kaplinsky N, Braun D, Lisch D, Hay A, Hake S, Freeling M (April 2002). "Biodiversity (Communications arising): maize transgene results in Mexico are artefacts". Nature. 416 (6881): 601–2, discussion 600, 602. Bibcode:2002Natur.416..601K. doi:10.1038/nature739. PMID   11935145. S2CID   195690886.
106. "Seeds of Conflict: NATURE Article Debate". NOW with Bill Moyers. Science & Health. PBS. Archived from the original on 20 February 2003.
107. Ortiz-García S, Ezcurra E, Schoel B, Acevedo F, Soberón J, Snow AA (August 2005). "Absence of detectable transgenes in local landraces of maize in Oaxaca, Mexico (2003-2004)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (35): 12338–43. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10212338O. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0503356102 . JSTOR   3376579. PMC   1184035 . PMID   16093316.
108. Serratos-Hernández J, Gómez-Olivares J, Salinas-Arreortua N, Buendía-Rodríguez E, Islas-Gutiérrez F, De-Ita A (2007). "Transgenic proteins in maize in the Soil Conservation area of Federal District, Mexico". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 5 (5): 247–52. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[247:TPIMIT]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   1540-9295.
109. Piñeyro-Nelson A, Van Heerwaarden J, Perales HR, Serratos-Hernández JA, Rangel A, Hufford MB, et al. (February 2009). "Transgenes in Mexican maize: molecular evidence and methodological considerations for GMO detection in landrace populations". Molecular Ecology. 18 (4): 750–61. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03993.x. PMC   3001031 . PMID   19143938.
110. Dalton R (November 2008). "Modified genes spread to local maize". Nature. 456 (7219): 149. doi: 10.1038/456149a . PMID   19005518.
111. Schoel B, Fagan J (October 2009). "Insufficient evidence for the discovery of transgenes in Mexican landraces". Molecular Ecology. 18 (20): 4143–4, discussion 4145–50. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04368.x . PMID   19793201. S2CID   205362226.
112. "ARS: Questions and Answers: Colony Collapse Disorder". ARS News. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. 2008-05-29. Archived from the original on 5 November 2008. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
113. Latsch G (March 22, 2007). "Are GM Crops Killing Bees?". Spiegel Online .
114. Rose R, Dively GP, Pettis J (2007). "Effects of Bt corn pollen on honey bees: Emphasis on protocol development". Apidologie. 38 (4): 368–77. doi:10.1051/apido:2007022. S2CID   18256663.
115. "Colony Collapse Disorder: An Incomplete Puzzle". Agricultural Research Magazine. United States Department of Agriculture. July 2012.
116. McGrath M (5 March 2009). "'No proof' of bee killer theory". BBC News.
117. "Thuringiensin". EPA pesticide database. Ofmpub.epa.gov. 2010-11-17. Archived from the original on 2013-04-09. Retrieved 2013-07-09.
118. Environment Directorate (26 July 2007). "Consensus Document on Safety Information on Transgenic Plants Expressing Bacillus Thuringiensis - Derived Insect Control Proteins" (PDF). Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-01-18. OECD Environment, Health and Safety Publications, Series on Harmonisation of Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnology No. 42
119. Yin R (2016). Structural basis of transcription inhibition by the nucleoside-analog inhibitor thuringiensin (Thesis). Rutgers University - Graduate School - New Brunswick. doi:10.7282/T3S75JHW.
120. Crickmore N, Berry C, Panneerselvam S, Mishra R, Connor TR, Bonning BC (November 2021). "A structure-based nomenclature for Bacillus thuringiensis and other bacteria-derived pesticidal proteins". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 186: 107438. doi: 10.1016/j.jip.2020.107438 . PMID   32652083. S2CID   220488006.
121. Jurat-Fuentes JL, Heckel DG, Ferré J (January 2021). "Mechanisms of Resistance to Insecticidal Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis". Annual Review of Entomology. 66 (1): 121–140. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ento-052620-073348 . PMID   33417820. S2CID   231303932.
122. Tetreau G, Andreeva EA, Banneville AS, De Zitter E, Colletier JP (June 2021). "How Does Bacillus thuringiensis Crystallize Such a Large Diversity of Toxins?". Toxins. 13 (7): 443. doi: 10.3390/toxins13070443 . PMC   8309854 . PMID   34206796.

Further reading

• de Maagd RA, Bravo A, Crickmore N (April 2001). "How Bacillus thuringiensis has evolved specific toxins to colonize the insect world". Trends in Genetics. 17 (4): 193–9. doi:10.1016/S0168-9525(01)02237-5. PMID   11275324.
• Bravo A, Gill SS, Soberón M (March 2007). "Mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry and Cyt toxins and their potential for insect control". Toxicon. 49 (4): 423–35. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.022. PMC   1857359 . PMID   17198720.
• Pigott CR, Ellar DJ (June 2007). "Role of receptors in Bacillus thuringiensis crystal toxin activity". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 71 (2): 255–81. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00034-06. PMC   1899880 . PMID   17554045.
• Tabashnik BE, Van Rensburg JB, Carrière Y (December 2009). "Field-evolved insect resistance to Bt crops: definition, theory, and data". Journal of Economic Entomology. 102 (6): 2011–25. doi:10.1603/029.102.0601. PMID   20069826. S2CID   2325989.

External links

• "Bacillus thuringiensis General Fact Sheet" (PDF). National Pesticide Information Center.
• "Bacillus thuringiensis Technical Fact Sheet" (PDF). National Pesticide Information Center.
• "Breakdown of the Bt toxin and effects on the soil quality". Research project and results. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16.
• "The Bacillus thuringiensis Toxin Specificity Database". Natural Resources Canada . Archived from the original on 2009-02-17.
• "Bacillus thuringiensis Taxonomy". NIH.
• "Bacillus thuringiensis] genomes and related information". PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center. NIAID. Archived from the original on 2011-07-27.
• "Economics literature about the impacts of genetically engineered (GE) crops in developing economies". bEcon.
• "Type strain of Bacillus thuringiensis". Bac Dive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase.