Allergen

Last updated

An allergen is an otherwise harmless substance that triggers an allergic reaction in sensitive individuals by stimulating an immune response.

Contents

In technical terms, an allergen is an antigen that is capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals through immunoglobulin E (IgE) responses. [1] Most humans mount significant Immunoglobulin E responses only as a defense against parasitic infections. However, some individuals may respond to many common environmental antigens. This hereditary predisposition is called atopy. In atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE production, leading to type I hypersensitivity.[ citation needed ]

Sensitivities vary widely from one person (or from one animal) to another. A very broad range of substances can be allergens to sensitive individuals.

Examples

SEM of miscellaneous plant pollens. Pollens are very common allergens. Misc pollen.jpg
SEM of miscellaneous plant pollens. Pollens are very common allergens.
The house dust mite, its feces and chitin are common allergens House Dust Mite.jpg
The house dust mite, its feces and chitin are common allergens

Allergens can be found in a variety of sources, such as dust mite excretion, pollen, pet dander, or even royal jelly. [2] Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such as peanuts (a legume), nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of serious allergies in many people.

The United States Food and Drug Administration recognizes nine foods as major food allergens: peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat, soy, and most recently sesame, [3] as well as sulfites (chemical-based, often found in flavors and colors in foods) at 10ppm and over.[ citation needed ] In other countries, due to differences in the genetic profiles of their citizens and different levels of exposure to specific foods, the official allergen lists will vary. Canada recognizes all nine of the allergens recognized by the US as well as mustard. [4] The European Union additionally recognizes other gluten-containing cereals as well as celery and lupin. [5]

Another allergen is urushiol, a resin produced by poison ivy and poison oak, which causes the skin rash condition known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis by changing a skin cell's configuration so that it is no longer recognized by the immune system as part of the body. Various trees and wood products such as paper, cardboard, MDF etc. can also cause mild to severe allergy symptoms through touch or inhalation of sawdust such as asthma and skin rash. [6]

An allergic reaction can be caused by any form of direct contact with the allergen—consuming food or drink one is sensitive to (ingestion), breathing in pollen, perfume or pet dander (inhalation), or brushing a body part against an allergy-causing plant (direct contact). Other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, [7] fire ant [8] and bee stings, [9] penicillin, [10] and latex. An extremely serious form of an allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. One form of treatment is the administration of sterile epinephrine to the person experiencing anaphylaxis, which suppresses the body's overreaction to the allergen, and allows for the patient to be transported to a medical facility.

Common

Common food allergens Peanuts, Egg, and Milk (33000737773).jpg
Common food allergens

In addition to foreign proteins found in foreign serum (from blood transfusions) and vaccines, common allergens include:

Seasonal

Seasonal allergy symptoms are commonly experienced during specific parts of the year, usually during spring, summer or fall when certain trees or grasses pollinate. This depends on the kind of tree or grass. For instance, some trees such as oak, elm, and maple pollinate in the spring, while grasses such as Bermuda, timothy and orchard pollinate in the summer.

Grass allergy is generally linked to hay fever because their symptoms and causes are somehow similar to each other. Symptoms include rhinitis, which causes sneezing and a runny nose, as well as allergic conjunctivitis, which includes watering and itchy eyes. [13] Also an initial tickle on the roof of the mouth or in the back of the throat may be experienced.

Also, depending on the season, the symptoms may be more severe and people may experience coughing, wheezing, and irritability. A few people even become depressed, lose their appetite, or have problems sleeping. Moreover, since the sinuses may also become congested, some people experience headaches. [14]

If both parents have had allergies in the past, there is a 66% chance for the individual to experience seasonal allergies, and the risk lowers to 60% if just one parent has had allergies.[ citation needed ] The immune system also has strong influence on seasonal allergies, because it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and the production of antibodies. These allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes, and lungs. When an allergen drifts into the nose more than once, mast cells release a slew of chemicals or histamines that irritate and inflame the moist membranes lining the nose and produce the symptoms of an allergic reaction: scratchy throat, itching, sneezing and watery eyes. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include: [15]

Among seasonal allergies, there are some allergens that fuse together and produce a new type of allergy. For instance, grass pollen allergens cross-react with food allergy proteins in vegetables such as onion, lettuce, carrots, celery, and corn. Besides, the cousins of birch pollen allergens, like apples, grapes, peaches, celery, and apricots, produce severe itching in the ears and throat. The cypress pollen allergy brings a cross reactivity between diverse species like olive, privet, ash and Russian olive tree pollen allergens. In some rural areas, there is another form of seasonal grass allergy, combining airborne particles of pollen mixed with mold. [16] Recent research has suggested that humans might develop allergies as a defense to fight off parasites. According to Yale University Immunologist Ruslan Medzhitov, protease allergens cleave the same sensor proteins that evolved to detect proteases produced by the parasitic worms. [17] Additionally, a new report on seasonal allergies called "Extreme allergies and Global Warming", have found that many allergy triggers are worsening due to climate change. 16 states in the United States were named as "Allergen Hotspots" for large increases in allergenic tree pollen if global warming pollution keeps increasing. Therefore, researchers on this report claimed that global warming is bad news for millions of asthmatics in the United States whose asthma attacks are triggered by seasonal allergies. [18] Indeed, seasonal allergies are one of the main triggers for asthma, along with colds or flu, cigarette smoke and exercise. In Canada, for example, up to 75% of asthmatics also have seasonal allergies. [19]

Diagnosis

Based on the symptoms seen on the patient, the answers given in terms of symptom evaluation and a physical exam, doctors can make a diagnosis to identify if the patient has a seasonal allergy. After performing the diagnosis, the doctor is able to tell the main cause of the allergic reaction and recommend the treatment to follow. 2 tests have to be done in order to determine the cause: a blood test and a skin test. Allergists do skin tests in one of two ways: either dropping some purified liquid of the allergen onto the skin and pricking the area with a small needle; or injecting a small amount of allergen under the skin. [20]

Alternative tools are available to identify seasonal allergies, such as laboratory tests, imaging tests, and nasal endoscopy. In the laboratory tests, the doctor will take a nasal smear and it will be examined microscopically for factors that may indicate a cause: increased numbers of eosinophils (white blood cells), which indicates an allergic condition. If there is a high count of eosinophils, an allergic condition might be present. [21]

Another laboratory test is the blood test for IgE (immunoglobulin production), such as the radioallergosorbent test (RAST) or the more recent enzyme allergosorbent tests (EAST), implemented to detect high levels of allergen-specific IgE in response to particular allergens. Although blood tests are less accurate than the skin tests, they can be performed on patients unable to undergo skin testing. Imaging tests can be useful to detect sinusitis in people who have chronic rhinitis, and they can work when other test results are ambiguous. There is also nasal endoscopy, wherein a tube is inserted through the nose with a small camera to view the passageways and examine any irregularities in the nose structure. Endoscopy can be used for some cases of chronic or unresponsive seasonal rhinitis. [22]

Fungal

In 1952 basidiospores were described as being possible airborne allergens [23] and were linked to asthma in 1969. [24] Basidiospores are the dominant airborne fungal allergens. Fungal allergies are associated with seasonal asthma. [25] [26] They are considered to be a major source of airborne allergens. [27] The basidospore family include mushrooms, rusts, smuts, brackets, and puffballs. The airborne spores from mushrooms reach levels comparable to those of mold and pollens. The levels of mushroom respiratory allergy are as high as 30 percent of those with allergic disorder, but it is believed to be less than 1 percent of food allergies. [28] [29] Heavy rainfall (which increases fungal spore release) is associated with increased hospital admissions of children with asthma. [30] A study in New Zealand found that 22 percent of patients with respiratory allergic disorders tested positive for basidiospores allergies. [31] Mushroom spore allergies can cause either immediate allergic symptomatology or delayed allergic reactions. Those with asthma are more likely to have immediate allergic reactions and those with allergic rhinitis are more likely to have delayed allergic responses. [32] A study found that 27 percent of patients were allergic to basidiomycete mycelia extracts and 32 percent were allergic to basidiospore extracts, thus demonstrating the high incidence of fungal sensitisation in individuals with suspected allergies. [33] It has been found that of basidiomycete cap, mycelia, and spore extracts that spore extracts are the most reliable extract for diagnosing basidiomycete allergy. [34] [35]

In Canada, 8% of children attending allergy clinics were found to be allergic to Ganoderma, a basidiospore. [36] Pleurotus ostreatus, [37] cladosporium, [38] and Calvatia cyathiformis are significant airborne spores. [27] Other significant fungal allergens include aspergillus and alternaria-penicillin families. [39] In India Fomes pectinatus is a predominant air-borne allergen affecting up to 22 percent of patients with respiratory allergies. [40] Some fungal air-borne allergens such as Coprinus comatus are associated with worsening of eczematous skin lesions. [41] Children who are born during autumn months (during fungal spore season) are more likely to develop asthmatic symptoms later in life. [42]

Treatment

Treatment includes over-the-counter medications, antihistamines, nasal decongestants, allergy shots, and alternative medicine. In the case of nasal symptoms, antihistamines are normally the first option. They may be taken together with pseudoephedrine to help relieve a stuffy nose and they can stop the itching and sneezing. Some over-the-counter options are Benadryl and Tavist. However, these antihistamines may cause extreme drowsiness, therefore, people are advised to not operate heavy machinery or drive while taking this kind of medication. Other side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, difficulty with urination, confusion, and light-headedness. [43] There is also a newer second generation of antihistamines that are generally classified as the "non-sedating antihistamines" or anti-drowsy, which include cetirizine, loratadine, and fexofenadine. [44]

An example of nasal decongestants is pseudoephedrine and its side-effects include insomnia, restlessness, and difficulty urinating. Some other nasal sprays are available by prescription, including Azelastine and Ipratropium. Some of their side-effects include drowsiness. For eye symptoms, it is important to first bath the eyes with plain eyewashes to reduce the irritation. People should not wear contact lenses during episodes of conjunctivitis.

Allergen immunotherapy treatment involves administering doses of allergens to accustom the body to induce specific long-term tolerance. [45] Allergy immunotherapy can be administered orally (as sublingual tablets or sublingual drops), or by injections under the skin (subcutaneous). [46] [47] Immunotherapy contains a small amount of the substance that triggers the allergic reactions. [48]

Ladders are also used for egg and milk allergies as a home-based therapy mainly for children. [49] [50] Such methods cited in the UK involve the gradual introduction of the allergen in a cooked form where the protein allergenicity has been reduced to become less potent. [51] [52] [53] By reintroducing the allergen from a fully cooked, usually baked, state research suggests that a tolerance can emerge to certain egg and milk allergies under the supervision of a dietitian or specialist. [54] [55] [49] The suitability of this treatment is debated between UK and North American experts. [49]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allergy</span> Immune system response

Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are various conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, coughing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Note that food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allergic rhinitis</span> Nasal inflammation due to allergens in the air

Allergic rhinitis, of which the seasonal type is called hay fever, is a type of inflammation in the nose that occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Signs and symptoms include a runny or stuffy nose, sneezing, red, itchy, and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes. The fluid from the nose is usually clear. Symptom onset is often within minutes following allergen exposure, and can affect sleep and the ability to work or study. Some people may develop symptoms only during specific times of the year, often as a result of pollen exposure. Many people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma, allergic conjunctivitis, or atopic dermatitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rhinitis</span> Irritation and inflammation of the mucous membrane inside the nose

Rhinitis, also known as coryza, is irritation and inflammation of the mucous membrane inside the nose. Common symptoms are a stuffy nose, runny nose, sneezing, and post-nasal drip.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food allergy</span> Hypersensitivity reaction to a food

A food allergy is an abnormal immune response to food. The symptoms of the allergic reaction may range from mild to severe. They may include itchiness, swelling of the tongue, vomiting, diarrhea, hives, trouble breathing, or low blood pressure. This typically occurs within minutes to several hours of exposure. When the symptoms are severe, it is known as anaphylaxis. A food intolerance and food poisoning are separate conditions, not due to an immune response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allergic conjunctivitis</span> Medical condition

Allergic conjunctivitis (AC) is inflammation of the conjunctiva due to allergy. Although allergens differ among patients, the most common cause is hay fever. Symptoms consist of redness, edema (swelling) of the conjunctiva, itching, and increased lacrimation. If this is combined with rhinitis, the condition is termed allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (ARC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allergen immunotherapy</span> Medical treatment for environmental allergies

Allergen immunotherapy, also known as desensitization or hypo-sensitization, is a medical treatment for environmental allergies and asthma. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergens in an attempt to change the immune system's response.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peanut allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by peanuts

Peanut allergy is a type of food allergy to peanuts. It is different from tree nut allergies, because peanuts are legumes and not true nuts. Physical symptoms of allergic reaction can include itchiness, hives, swelling, eczema, sneezing, asthma attack, abdominal pain, drop in blood pressure, diarrhea, and cardiac arrest. Anaphylaxis may occur. Those with a history of asthma are more likely to be severely affected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soy allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by soy

Soy allergy is a type of food allergy. It is a hypersensitivity to ingesting compounds in soy, causing an overreaction of the immune system, typically with physical symptoms, such as gastrointestinal discomfort, respiratory distress, or a skin reaction. Soy is among the eight most common foods inducing allergic reactions in children and adults. It has a prevalence of about 0.3% in the general population.

Oral allergy syndrome (OAS) or pollen-food allergy syndrome (PFAS) is a type of allergy classified by a cluster of allergic reactions in the mouth and throat in response to eating certain fruits, nuts, and vegetables. It typically develops in adults with hay fever. It is not usually serious.

Allergies to cats, a type of animal allergy, are one of the most common allergies experienced by humans. Among the eight known cat allergens, the most prominent allergen is secretoglobin Fel d 1, which is produced in the anal glands, salivary glands, and, mainly, in sebaceous glands of cats, and is ubiquitous in the United States, even in households without cats. The second most common is Fel d 2, this type is triggered by the cats dead skin flakes (dander) that are floating in the air as well as in the smell of cat urine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by milk

Milk allergy is an adverse immune reaction to one or more proteins in cow's milk. Symptoms may take hours to days to manifest, with symptoms including atopic dermatitis, inflammation of the esophagus, enteropathy involving the small intestine and proctocolitis involving the rectum and colon. However, rapid anaphylaxis is possible, a potentially life-threatening condition that requires treatment with epinephrine, among other measures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Egg allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by eggs

Egg allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in chicken eggs, and possibly goose, duck, or turkey eggs. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tree nut allergy</span> Medical condition

A tree nut allergy is a hypersensitivity to dietary substances from tree nuts and edible tree seeds causing an overreaction of the immune system which may lead to severe physical symptoms. Tree nuts include almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, chestnuts, filberts/hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pistachios, shea nuts and walnuts.

Rice allergy is a type of food allergy. People allergic to rice react to various rice proteins after consuming rice or inhale the steam from cooking rice. Although some reactions might lead to severe health problems, doctors can diagnose rice allergy with many methods and help allergic people to avoid reactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allergies in children</span> Medical condition

Allergies in children, an incidence which has increased over the last fifty years, are overreactions of the immune system often caused by foreign substances or genetics that may present themselves in different ways. There are multiple forms of testing, prevention, management, and treatment available if an allergy is present in a child. In some cases, it is possible for children to outgrow their allergies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fish allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by fish

Fish allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in fish. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus. Fish is one of the eight common food allergens which are responsible for 90% of allergic reactions to foods: cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dust mite allergy</span> Medical condition

Dust mite allergy, also known as house dust allergy, is a sensitization and allergic reaction to the droppings of house dust mites. The allergy is common and can trigger allergic reactions such as asthma, eczema or itching. The mite's gut contains potent digestive enzymes that persist in their feces and are major inducers of allergic reactions such as wheezing. The mite's exoskeleton can also contribute to allergic reactions. Unlike scabies mites or skin follicle mites, house dust mites do not burrow under the skin and are not parasitic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shellfish allergy</span> Type of food allergy caused by shellfish

Shellfish allergy is among the most common food allergies. "Shellfish" is a colloquial and fisheries term for aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs such as clams, mussels, oysters and scallops, crustaceans such as shrimp, lobsters and crabs, and cephalopods such as squid and octopus. Shellfish allergy is an immune hypersensitivity to proteins found in shellfish. Symptoms can be either rapid or gradual in onset. The latter can take hours to days to appear. The former may include anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition which requires treatment with epinephrine. Other presentations may include atopic dermatitis or inflammation of the esophagus. Shellfish is one of the eight common food allergens, responsible for 90% of allergic reactions to foods: cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sesame allergy</span> Food allergy caused by sesame seeds

A food allergy to sesame seeds has prevalence estimates in the range of 0.1–0.2% of the general population, and are higher in the Middle East and other countries where sesame seeds are used in traditional foods. Reporting of sesame seed allergy has increased in the 21st century, either due to a true increase from exposure to more sesame foods or due to an increase in awareness. Increasing sesame allergy rates have induced more countries to regulate food labels to identify sesame ingredients in products and the potential for allergy. In the United States, sesame became the ninth food allergen with mandatory labeling, effective 1 January 2023.

References

  1. ↑ Goldsby RA, Kindt TJ, Kuby J, Osborne BA (2003). Immunology (5th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN   978-0-7167-4947-9.
  2. ↑ Rosmilah M, Shahnaz M, Patel G, Lock J, Rahman D, Masita A, et al. (December 2008). "Characterization of major allergens of royal jelly Apis mellifera". Tropical Biomedicine. 25 (3): 243–251. PMID   19287364.
  3. ↑ "Food Allergies". Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 10 January 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
  4. ↑ "Revised Labelling Regulations for Food Allergens, Gluten Sources and Sulphites (Amendments to the Food and Drug Regulations)". Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  5. ↑ "Food Allergens - European Union". Food Allergy Research and Resource Program (FARRP). University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  6. ↑ "Wood Allergies and Toxicity". The Wood Database. Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
  7. ↑ dos Santos-Pinto JR, dos Santos LD, Arcuri HA, da Silva Menegasso AR, Pêgo PN, Santos KS, et al. (January 2015). "B-cell linear epitopes mapping of antigen-5 allergen from Polybia paulista wasp venom". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 135 (1): 264–267. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2014.07.006 . PMID   25129676.
  8. ↑ Zamith-Miranda D, Fox EG, Monteiro AP, Gama D, Poublan LE, de Araujo AF, et al. (September 2018). "The allergic response mediated by fire ant venom proteins". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 14427. Bibcode:2018NatSR...814427Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32327-z. PMC   6158280 . PMID   30258210.
  9. ↑ de Lima PR, Brochetto-Braga MR (2003). "Hymenoptera venom review focusing on Apis mellifera". Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins Including Tropical Diseases. 9 (2). doi: 10.1590/S1678-91992003000200002 . ISSN   1678-9199.
  10. ↑ Solensky R. Phillips EJ, Feldweg AM (eds.). "Penicillin allergy: Immediate reactions". UpToDate. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  11. ↑ Bublin M, Radauer C, Wilson IB, Kraft D, Scheiner O, Breiteneder H, et al. (September 2003). "Cross-reactive N-glycans of Api g 5, a high molecular weight glycoprotein allergen from celery, are required for immunoglobulin E binding and activation of effector cells from allergic patients". FASEB Journal. 17 (12): 1697–1699. doi: 10.1096/fj.02-0872fje . PMID   12958180. S2CID   22253513. Archived from the original on 4 January 2007.
  12. ↑ Zug KA, Warshaw EM, Fowler JF, Maibach HI, Belsito DL, Pratt MD, et al. (2009). "Patch-test results of the North American Contact Dermatitis Group 2005-2006". Dermatitis: Contact, Atopic, Occupational, Drug. 20 (3): 149–60. PMID   19470301.
  13. ↑ "Seasonal Allergy — What to Know". Seasonal Allergy. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  14. ↑ Fernandez J. "Seasonal Allergies". The Merck Manual. Rahway, NJ, USA: Merck & Co., Inc. Archived from the original on 12 April 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  15. ↑ "Seasonal allergies: Something to sneeze at". CBS News. Archived from the original on 2 September 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  16. ↑ "Seasonal Allergies: What to know". Seasonal Allergy. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  17. ↑ "Parasites behind seasonal allergies". ABC Science. Archived from the original on 8 September 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  18. ↑ Weinmann A (14 April 2010). "Seasonal allergies getting worse from Climate Change". National Wildlife Federation. Media Center. Archived from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  19. ↑ "Asthma and Allergies: The Symptoms". Asthma Society of Canada. Archived from the original on 17 September 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  20. ↑ "Seasonal Allergies". Kids Health. Archived from the original on 16 May 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  21. ↑ Liesveld J. "Eosinophilia - Hematology and Oncology". Merck Manuals Professional Edition. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  22. ↑ "Allergic Rhinitis". New York Times Health Guide. Archived from the original on 4 September 2010. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
  23. ↑ Gregory PH, Hirst JM (September 1952). "Possible role of basidiospores as air-borne allergens". Nature. 170 (4323): 414. Bibcode:1952Natur.170..414G. doi: 10.1038/170414a0 . PMID   12993181. S2CID   4205965.
  24. ↑ Herxheimer H, Hyde HA, Williams DA (July 1969). "Allergic asthma caused by basidiospores". Lancet. 2 (7612): 131–133. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(69)92441-6. PMID   4183245.
  25. ↑ Hasnain SM, Wilson JD, Newhook FJ (May 1985). "Fungal allergy and respiratory disease". The New Zealand Medical Journal. 98 (778): 342–346. PMID   3858721.
  26. ↑ Levetin E (April 1989). "Basidiospore identification". Annals of Allergy. 62 (4): 306–310. PMID   2705657.
  27. 1 2 Horner WE, Lopez M, Salvaggio JE, Lehrer SB (1991). "Basidiomycete allergy: identification and characterization of an important allergen from Calvatia cyathiformis". International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology. 94 (1–4): 359–361. doi:10.1159/000235403 (inactive 18 August 2024). PMID   1937899.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link)
  28. ↑ Sprenger JD, Altman LC, O'Neil CE, Ayars GH, Butcher BT, Lehrer SB (December 1988). "Prevalence of basidiospore allergy in the Pacific Northwest". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 82 (6): 1076–1080. doi:10.1016/0091-6749(88)90146-7. PMID   3204251.
  29. ↑ Koivikko A, Savolainen J (January 1988). "Mushroom allergy". Allergy. 43 (1): 1–10. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1988.tb02037.x . PMID   3278649.
  30. ↑ Khot A, Burn R, Evans N, Lenney W, Storr J (July 1988). "Biometeorological triggers in childhood asthma". Clinical Allergy. 18 (4): 351–358. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.1988.tb02882.x. PMID   3416418. S2CID   27600549.
  31. ↑ Hasnain SM, Wilson JD, Newhook FJ, Segedin BP (May 1985). "Allergy to basidiospores: immunologic studies". The New Zealand Medical Journal. 98 (779): 393–396. PMID   3857522.
  32. ↑ Santilli J, Rockwell WJ, Collins RP (September 1985). "The significance of the spores of the Basidiomycetes (mushrooms and their allies) in bronchial asthma and allergic rhinitis". Annals of Allergy. 55 (3): 469–471. PMID   4037433.
  33. ↑ Lehrer SB, Lopez M, Butcher BT, Olson J, Reed M, Salvaggio JE (September 1986). "Basidiomycete mycelia and spore-allergen extracts: skin test reactivity in adults with symptoms of respiratory allergy". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 78 (3 Pt 1): 478–485. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(86)90036-9 . PMID   3760405.
  34. ↑ Weissman DN, Halmepuro L, Salvaggio JE, Lehrer SB (1987). "Antigenic/allergenic analysis of basidiomycete cap, mycelia, and spore extracts". International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology. 84 (1): 56–61. doi:10.1159/000234398 (inactive 18 August 2024). PMID   3623711.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link)
  35. ↑ Liengswangwong V, Salvaggio JE, Lyon FL, Lehrer SB (May 1987). "Basidiospore allergens: determination of optimal extraction methods". Clinical Allergy. 17 (3): 191–198. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.1987.tb02003.x. PMID   3608137. S2CID   45338948.
  36. ↑ Tarlo SM, Bell B, Srinivasan J, Dolovich J, Hargreave FE (July 1979). "Human sensitization to Ganoderma antigen". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 64 (1): 43–49. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(79)90082-4 . PMID   447950.
  37. ↑ Lopez M, Butcher BT, Salvaggio JE, Olson JA, Reed MA, McCants ML, et al. (1985). "Basidiomycete allergy: what is the best source of antigen?". International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology. 77 (1–2): 169–170. doi: 10.1159/000233775 (inactive 18 August 2024). PMID   4008070.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link)
  38. ↑ Stephen E, Raftery AE, Dowding P (August 1990). "Forecasting spore concentrations: a time series approach". International Journal of Biometeorology. 34 (2): 87–89. Bibcode:1990IJBm...34...87S. doi:10.1007/BF01093452. PMID   2228299. S2CID   30836940.
  39. ↑ Dhillon M (May 1991). "Current status of mold immunotherapy". Annals of Allergy. 66 (5): 385–392. PMID   2035901.
  40. ↑ Gupta SK, Pereira BM, Singh AB (March 1999). "Fomes pectinatis: an aeroallergen in India". Asian Pacific Journal of Allergy and Immunology. 17 (1): 1–7. PMID   10403002.
  41. ↑ Fischer B, Yawalkar N, Brander KA, Pichler WJ, Helbling A (October 1999). "Coprinus comatus (shaggy cap) is a potential source of aeroallergen that may provoke atopic dermatitis". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 104 (4 Pt 1): 836–841. doi: 10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70295-2 . PMID   10518829.
  42. ↑ Harley KG, Macher JM, Lipsett M, Duramad P, Holland NT, Prager SS, et al. (April 2009). "Fungi and pollen exposure in the first months of life and risk of early childhood wheezing". Thorax. 64 (4): 353–358. doi:10.1136/thx.2007.090241. PMC   3882001 . PMID   19240083.
  43. ↑ "Seasonal Allergies". Physician's Desk Reference. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  44. ↑ "Non-Sedating or Anti-Drowsy Antihistamine Tablets". Hayfever Pharmacy. New Zealand. Archived from the original on 11 April 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  45. ↑ Van Overtvelt L. et al. Immune mechanisms of allergen-specific sublingual immunotherapy. Revue française d'allergologie et d'immunologie clinique. 2006; 46: 713–720.
  46. ↑ "Oral Immunotherapy (OIT) in Practice - FoodAllergy.org". 3 March 2024. Archived from the original on 3 March 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
  47. ↑ "Allergy Shots (Subcutaneous Immunotherapy) | Allergy Treatment". American College of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology (ACAAI). Retrieved 3 March 2024.
  48. ↑ "Allergy shots". Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on 22 April 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  49. 1 2 3 Gallagher A, Cronin C, Heng TA, McKiernan A, Tobin C, Flores L, et al. (August 2024). "Dietary Advancement Therapy Using Milk and Egg Ladders Among Children With a History of Anaphylaxis". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice. 12 (8): 2135–2143. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2024.04.057 . PMID   38729302.
  50. ↑ Chomyn A, Chan ES, Yeung J, Vander Leek TK, Williams BA, Soller L, et al. (August 2021). "Canadian food ladders for dietary advancement in children with IgE-mediated allergy to milk and/or egg". Allergy, Asthma, and Clinical Immunology. 17 (1): 83. doi: 10.1186/s13223-021-00583-w . PMC   8340453 . PMID   34353372.
  51. ↑ Bloom KA, Huang FR, Bencharitiwong R, Bardina L, Ross A, Sampson HA, et al. (December 2014). "Effect of heat treatment on milk and egg proteins allergenicity". Pediatric Allergy and Immunology. 25 (8): 740–746. doi:10.1111/pai.12283. PMID   25251921.
  52. ↑ Shin M, Han Y, Ahn K (March 2013). "The influence of the time and temperature of heat treatment on the allergenicity of egg white proteins". Allergy, Asthma & Immunology Research. 5 (2): 96–101. doi:10.4168/aair.2013.5.2.96. PMC   3579098 . PMID   23450247.
  53. ↑ Cronin C, McGinley AM, Flores L, McKiernan A, Velasco R, O'B Hourihane J, et al. (July 2023). "Primary care as a setting for introducing milk using the milk ladder in children with IgE-mediated cow's milk protein allergy". Clinical and Translational Allergy. 13 (7): e12286. doi:10.1002/clt2.12286. PMC   10351366 . PMID   37488730.
  54. ↑ Cotter S, Lad D, Byrne A, Hourihane JO (October 2021). "Home-based graded exposure to egg to treat egg allergy". Clinical and Translational Allergy. 11 (8): e12068. doi:10.1002/clt2.12068. PMC   8506942 . PMID   34667590.
  55. ↑ Venter C, Meyer R, Ebisawa M, Athanasopoulou P, Mack DP (January 2022). Eigenmann PA (ed.). "Food allergen ladders: A need for standardization". Pediatric Allergy and Immunology. 33 (1): e13714. doi:10.1111/pai.13714. PMID   34882843.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.