Mouth

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Mouth
Australien-Krokodil.JPG
A freshwater crocodile at Basel Zoo in Switzerland
Details
Identifiers
Latin os, oris [1]
MeSH D009055
TA98 A05.1.00.001
TA2 119, 2774
FMA 49184
Anatomical terminology

The mouth is the body orifice through which many animals ingest food and vocalize. The body cavity immediately behind the mouth opening, known as the oral cavity (or cavum oris in Latin), [2] is also the first part of the alimentary canal, which leads to the pharynx and the gullet. In tetrapod vertebrates, the mouth is bounded on the outside by the lips and cheeks — thus the oral cavity is also known as the buccal cavity (from Latin bucca, meaning "cheek") [3] — and contains the tongue on the inside. Except for some groups like birds and lissamphibians, vertebrates usually have teeth in their mouths, [4] although some fish species have pharyngeal teeth instead of oral teeth.

Contents

Most bilaterian phyla, including arthropods, molluscs and chordates, have a two-opening gut tube with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify bilaterian animals into protostomes and deuterostomes.

Development

Development of the mouth and anus in protostomes and deuterostomes Protovsdeuterostomes.svg
Development of the mouth and anus in protostomes and deuterostomes

In the first multicellular animals, there was probably no mouth or gut and food particles were engulfed by the cells on the exterior surface by a process known as endocytosis. The particles became enclosed in vacuoles into which enzymes were secreted and digestion took place intracellularly. The digestive products were absorbed into the cytoplasm and diffused into other cells. This form of digestion is used nowadays by simple organisms such as Amoeba and Paramecium and also by sponges which, despite their large size, have no mouth or gut and capture their food by endocytosis. [5]

However, most animals have a mouth and a gut, the lining of which is continuous with the epithelial cells on the surface of the body. A few animals which live parasitically originally had guts but have secondarily lost these structures. The original gut of diploblastic animals probably consisted of a mouth and a one-way gut. Some modern invertebrates still have such a system: food being ingested through the mouth, partially broken down by enzymes secreted in the gut, and the resulting particles engulfed by the other cells in the gut lining. Indigestible waste is ejected through the mouth. [5]

In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the formation of the gut. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth. In the protostomes, it used to be thought that the blastopore formed the mouth ( proto– meaning "first") while the anus formed later as an opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the slit-like blastopore close up in the middle, leaving openings at both ends that become the mouth and anus. [6]

Anatomy

Invertebrates

Butterfly tongue Butterfly tongue.jpg
Butterfly tongue

Apart from sponges and placozoans, almost all animals have an internal gut cavity, which is lined with gastrodermal cells. In less advanced invertebrates such as the sea anemone, the mouth also acts as an anus. Circular muscles around the mouth are able to relax or contract in order to open or close it. A fringe of tentacles thrusts food into the cavity and it can gape widely enough to accommodate large prey items. Food passes first into a pharynx and digestion occurs extracellularly in the gastrovascular cavity. [7] Annelids have simple tube-like guts, and the possession of an anus allows them to separate the digestion of their foodstuffs from the absorption of the nutrients. [8] Many molluscs have a radula, which is used to scrape microscopic particles off surfaces. [9] In invertebrates with hard exoskeletons, various mouthparts may be involved in feeding behaviour. Insects have a range of mouthparts suited to their mode of feeding. These include mandibles, maxillae and labium and can be modified into suitable appendages for chewing, cutting, piercing, sponging and sucking. [10] Decapods have six pairs of mouth appendages, one pair of mandibles, two pairs of maxillae and three of maxillipeds. [11] Sea urchins have a set of five sharp calcareous plates, which are used as jaws and are known as Aristotle's lantern. [12]

Vertebrates

In vertebrates, the first part of the digestive system is the buccal cavity, commonly known as the mouth. The buccal cavity of a fish is separated from the opercular cavity by the gills. Water flows in through the mouth, passes over the gills and exits via the operculum or gill slits. Nearly all fish have jaws and may seize food with them but most feed by opening their jaws, expanding their pharynx and sucking in food items. The food may be held or chewed by teeth located in the jaws, on the roof of the mouth, on the pharynx or on the gill arches. [13]

Litoria chloris calling Litoria chloris calling.jpg
Litoria chloris calling

Nearly all amphibians are carnivorous as adults. Many catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth, where they hold the prey with their jaws. They then swallow their food whole without much chewing. [14] They typically have many small hinged pedicellate teeth, the bases of which are attached to the jaws, while the crowns break off at intervals and are replaced. Most amphibians have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws but some frogs lack teeth in the lower jaw. In many amphibians, there are also vomerine teeth attached to the bone in the roof of the mouth. [15]

The mouths of reptiles are largely similar to those of mammals. The crocodilians are the only reptiles to have teeth anchored in sockets in their jaws. [16] They are able to replace each of their approximately 80 teeth up to 50 times during their lives. [17] Most reptiles are either carnivorous or insectivorous, but turtles are often herbivorous. Lacking teeth that are suitable for efficiently chewing of their food, turtles often have gastroliths in their stomach to further grind the plant material. [18] Snakes have a very flexible lower jaw, the two halves of which are not rigidly attached, and numerous other joints in their skull. These modifications allow them to open their mouths wide enough to swallow their prey whole, even if it is wider than they are. [19]

Birds do not have teeth, relying instead on other means of gripping and macerating their food. Their beaks have a range of sizes and shapes according to their diet and are composed of elongated mandibles. The upper mandible may have a nasofrontal hinge allowing the beak to open wider than would otherwise be possible. The exterior surface of beaks is composed of a thin, horny sheath of keratin. [20] Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds have specially adapted brushy tongues for sucking up nectar from flowers. [21]

In mammals, the buccal cavity is typically roofed by the hard and soft palates, floored by the tongue and surrounded by the cheeks, salivary glands, and upper and lower teeth. The upper teeth are embedded in the upper jaw and the lower teeth in the lower jaw, which articulates with the temporal bones of the skull. The lips are soft and fleshy folds which shape the entrance into the mouth. The buccal cavity empties through the pharynx into the oesophagus. [22]

Other functions of the mouth

Crocodilians living in the tropics can gape with their mouths to provide cooling by evaporation from the mouth lining. [23] Some mammals rely on panting for thermoregulation as it increases evaporation of water across the moist surfaces of the lungs, the tongue and mouth. Birds also avoid overheating by gular fluttering, flapping the wings near the gular (throat) skin, similar to panting in mammals. [24]

Tasmanian devil in defensive stance Tasdevil large.jpg
Tasmanian devil in defensive stance

Various animals use their mouths in threat displays. They may gape widely, exhibit their teeth prominently, or flash the startling colours of the mouth lining. This display allows each potential combatant an opportunity to assess the weapons of their opponent and lessens the likelihood of actual combat being necessary. [25]

A number of species of bird use a gaping, open beak in their fear and threat displays. Some augment the display by hissing or breathing heavily, while others clap their beaks. [26]

Mouths are also used as part of the mechanism for producing sounds for communication. To produce sounds, air is forced from the lungs over vocal cords in the larynx. In humans, the pharynx, soft palate, hard palate, alveolar ridge, tongue, teeth and lips are termed articulators and play their part in the production of speech. Varying the position of the tongue in relation to the other articulators or moving the lips restricts the airflow from the lungs in different ways and changes the mouth's resonating properties, producing a range of different sounds. [27] In frogs, the sounds can be amplified using sacs in the throat region. The vocal sacs can be inflated and deflated and act as resonators to transfer the sound to the outside world. [28] A bird's song is produced by the flow of air over a vocal organ at the base of the trachea, the syrinx. For each burst of song, the bird opens its beak and closes it again afterwards. The beak may move slightly and may contribute to the resonance but the song originates elsewhere. [29]

See also

Related Research Articles

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Anatomy is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine, and is often studied alongside physiology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Echinoderm</span> Exclusively marine phylum of animals with generally 5-point radial symmetry

An echinoderm is any deuterostomal animal of the phylum Echinodermata, which includes starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars and sea cucumbers, as well as the sessile sea lilies or "stone lilies". While bilaterally symmetrical as larvae, as adults echinoderms are recognisable by their usually five-pointed radial symmetry, and are found on the sea bed at every ocean depth from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone. The phylum contains about 7,600 living species, making it the second-largest group of deuterostomes after the chordates, as well as the largest marine-only phylum. The first definitive echinoderms appeared near the start of the Cambrian.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gastrotrich</span> Phylum of microscopic animals

The gastrotrichs, commonly referred to as hairybellies or hairybacks, are a group of microscopic (0.06–3.0 mm), cylindrical, acoelomate animals, and are widely distributed and abundant in freshwater and marine environments. They are mostly benthic and live within the periphyton, the layer of tiny organisms and detritus that is found on the seabed and the beds of other water bodies. The majority live on and between particles of sediment or on other submerged surfaces, but a few species are terrestrial and live on land in the film of water surrounding grains of soil. Gastrotrichs are divided into two orders, the Macrodasyida which are marine, and the Chaetonotida, some of which are marine and some freshwater. Nearly 800 species of gastrotrich have been described.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nemertea</span> Phylum of invertebrates, ribbon worms

Nemertea is a phylum of animals also known as ribbon worms or proboscis worms, consisting of about 1300 known species. Most ribbon worms are very slim, usually only a few millimeters wide, although a few have relatively short but wide bodies. Many have patterns of yellow, orange, red and green coloration. The foregut, stomach and intestine run a little below the midline of the body, the anus is at the tip of the tail, and the mouth is under the front. A little above the gut is the rhynchocoel, a cavity which mostly runs above the midline and ends a little short of the rear of the body. All species have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts to emerge just above the mouth to capture the animal's prey with venom. A highly extensible muscle in the back of the rhynchocoel pulls the proboscis in when an attack ends. A few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have suckers at the front and back ends, with which they attach to a host.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phoronid</span> Phylum of marine animals

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References

  1. ↑ Schröder, Hannsjörg; Moser, Natasha; Huggenberger, Stefan (2020). Neuroanatomy of the Mouse: An Introduction. Springer International Publishing. p. 105. ISBN   978-3-03019-898-5 . Retrieved December 24, 2023.
  2. ↑ Gray, Henry (1918). "2a. The Mouth". Gray's Anatomy . Archived from the original on Oct 10, 2022.
  3. ↑ "Buccal definition". Dictionary Reference. The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  4. ↑ "Mouth definition". Dictionary Reference. The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on Sep 30, 2013. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
  5. 1 2 Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology . Saunders College Publishing. pp.  241–242. ISBN   978-0-03-030504-7.
  6. ↑ Arendt, D.; Technau, U.; Wittbrodt, J. (2001). "Evolution of the bilaterian larval foregut". Nature. 409 (6816): 81–85. Bibcode:2001Natur.409...81A. doi:10.1038/35051075. PMID   11343117. S2CID   4406268.
  7. ↑ Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition . Cengage Learning. p. 103. ISBN   978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition . Cengage Learning. p. 428. ISBN   978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition . Cengage Learning. p. 286. ISBN   978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition . Cengage Learning. pp. 727–731. ISBN   978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition . Cengage Learning. p. 634. ISBN   978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition . Cengage Learning. p. 902. ISBN   978-81-315-0104-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ↑ Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology . Saunders College Publishing. p.  818. ISBN   978-0-03-030504-7.
  14. ↑ Dorit, R. L.; Walker, W. F.; Barnes, R. D. (1991). Zoology . Saunders College Publishing. p.  847. ISBN   978-0-03-030504-7.
  15. ↑ Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians . Princeton University Press. pp. 57–58. ISBN   978-0-691-03281-8.
  16. ↑ LeBlanc, A. R. H.; Reisz, R. R. (2013). Viriot, Laurent (ed.). "Periodontal ligament, cementum, and alveolar bone in the oldest herbivorous tetrapods, and their evolutionary significance". PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e74697. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...874697L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074697 . PMC   3762739 . PMID   24023957.
  17. ↑ Nuwer, Rachel (13 May 2013). "Solving an alligator mystery may help humans regrow lost teeth". Smithsonian.com. Archived from the original on Jun 12, 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2013.
  18. ↑ King, Gillian (1996). Reptiles and Herbivory. Chapman & Hall. ISBN   0412461102.
  19. ↑ Behler, John L.; King, F. Wayne (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of North America . Alfred A. Knopf. p.  581. ISBN   0-394-50824-6.
  20. ↑ Gill, Frank B. (1995). Ornithology (2 ed.). W. H. Freeman & Co. p. 149. ISBN   0-7167-2415-4.
  21. ↑ Paton, D. C.; Collins, B. G. (1 April 1989). "Bills and tongues of nectar-feeding birds: A review of morphology, function, and performance, with intercontinental comparisons". Australian Journal of Ecology. 14 (4): 473–506. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1989.tb01457.x.
  22. ↑ Pourtauborde, Aniza. "What is the buccal cavity?". WiseGeek. Conjecture Corporation. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
  23. ↑ Ross, Charles A., ed. (1992). Crocodiles and Alligators. Blitz. pp. 48–51. ISBN   978-1-85391-092-0.
  24. ↑ Robertshaw, David (2006). "Mechanisms for the control of respiratory evaporative heat loss in panting animals". Journal of Applied Physiology. 101 (2): 664–668. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01380.2005. PMID   16675613.
  25. ↑ "Showing Off Your Weapons In The Animal Kingdom: Threat Displays May Prevent Serious Physical Harm". ScienceDaily. 2006-06-21. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
  26. ↑ Rogers, Lesley J.; Kaplan, Gisela T. (2000). Songs, Roars and Rituals: Communication in Birds, Mammals and Other Animals . Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. p.  79. ISBN   0-674-00827-8.
  27. ↑ "The production of speech sounds: Articulators above the larynx". personal.rdg.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
  28. ↑ Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians . Princeton University Press. p. 77. ISBN   978-0-691-03281-8.
  29. ↑ Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl (1998). "Bird voices". web.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2013-11-30.
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