Neomycin

Last updated
Neomycin
Neomycin B C.svg
Neomycin ball-and-stick.png
Clinical data
Trade names Neo-rx
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
MedlinePlus a682274
Routes of
administration 		Topical, oral
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability None
Protein binding N/A
Metabolism N/A
Elimination half-life 2 to 3 hours
Identifiers
  • (2RS,3S,4S,5R)-5-Amino-2-(aminomethyl)-6-((2R,3S,4R,5S)-5-((1R,2R,5R,6R)-3,5-diamino-2-((2R,3S,4R,5S)-3-amino-6-(aminomethyl)-4,5-dihydroxytetrahydro-2H-pyran-2-yloxy)-6-hydroxycyclohexyloxy)-4-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)tetrahydro-2H-pyran-3,4-diol
CAS Number
PubChem CID
IUPHAR/BPS
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ECHA InfoCard 100.014.333 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Chemical and physical data
Formula C23H46N6O13
Molar mass 614.650 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • O([C@H]3[C@H](O[C@@H]2O[C@H](CO)[C@@H](O[C@H]1O[C@@H](CN)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H]1N)[C@H]2O)[C@@H](O)[C@H](N)C[C@@H]3N)[C@H]4O[C@@H]([C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H]4N)CN
  • InChI=1S/C23H46N6O13/c24-2-7-13(32)15(34)10(28)21(37-7)40-18-6(27)1-5(26)12(31)20(18)42-23-17(36)19(9(4-30)39-23)41-22-11(29)16(35)14(33)8(3-25)38-22/h5-23,30-36H,1-4,24-29H2/t5-,6+,7+,8?,9+,10+,11-,12+,13+,14-,15+,16-,17+,18-,19+,20-,21+,22-,23-/m0/s1 X mark.svgN
  • Key:PGBHMTALBVVCIT-DPNHOFNISA-N X mark.svgN
 X mark.svgNYes check.svgY  (what is this?)    (verify)

Neomycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that displays bactericidal activity against Gram-negative aerobic bacilli and some anaerobic bacilli where resistance has not yet arisen. It is generally not effective against Gram-positive bacilli and anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli. Neomycin comes in oral and topical formulations, including creams, ointments, and eyedrops. Neomycin belongs to the aminoglycoside class of antibiotics that contain two or more amino sugars connected by glycosidic bonds.

Contents

Neomycin was discovered in 1949 by microbiologist Selman Waksman and his student Hubert Lechevalier at Rutgers University. Neomycin received approval for medical use in 1952. [1] Rutgers University was granted the patent for neomycin in 1957. [2]

Discovery

Neomycin was discovered in 1949 by the microbiologist Selman Waksman and his student Hubert Lechevalier at Rutgers University. It is produced naturally by the bacterium Streptomyces fradiae . [3] Synthesis requires specific nutrient conditions in either stationary or submerged aerobic conditions. The compound is then isolated and purified from the bacterium. [4]

Medical uses

Neomycin is typically applied as a topical preparation, such as Neosporin (neomycin/polymyxin B/bacitracin). The antibiotic can also be administered orally, in which case it is usually combined with other antibiotics. Neomycin is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and has been used as a preventive measure for hepatic encephalopathy and hypercholesterolemia. By killing bacteria in the intestinal tract, Neomycin keeps ammonia levels low and prevents hepatic encephalopathy, especially before gastrointestinal surgery.[ citation needed ]

Waksman and Lechevalier originally noted that neomycin was active against streptomycin-resistant bacteria as well as Mycobacterium tuberculosis , the causative agent for tuberculosis. [5] Neomycin has also been used to treat small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Neomycin is not administered via injection, as it is extremely nephrotoxic (damaging to kidney function) even when compared to other aminoglycosides. The exception is when neomycin is included, in small quantities, as a preservative in some vaccines – typically 25 μg per dose. [6]

Spectrum

Similar to other aminoglycosides, neomycin has excellent activity against Gram-negative bacteria and is partially effective against Gram-positive bacteria. It is relatively toxic to humans, with allergic reactions noted as a common adverse reaction (see: hypersensitivity). [7] Physicians sometimes recommend using antibiotic ointments without neomycin, such as Polysporin. [8] The following represents minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) susceptibility data for a few medically significant Gram-negative bacteria. [9]

Side effects

In 2005–06, Neomycin was the fifth-most-prevalent allergen in patch test results (10.0%). [10] It was named Allergen of the Year in 2010. [11] Neomycin is also a known GABA gamma-Aminobutyric acid antagonist and can be responsible for seizures and psychosis. [12] Like other aminoglycosides, neomycin has been shown to be ototoxic, causing tinnitus, hearing loss, and vestibular problems in a small number of patients. Neomycin affects the cochlea, which is found in the inner ear. [13] Hearing loss is caused by ear hair cell death, which occurs in response to treatment with neomycin. [14] Patients with existing tinnitus or sensorineural hearing loss are advised to speak with a healthcare practitioner about the risks and side effects prior to taking this medication.[ citation needed ]

Molecular biology

Activity

Neomycin's antibacterial activity stems from its binding to the 30S subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome, where it inhibits prokaryotic translation of mRNA. [15]

Neomycin also exhibits a high binding affinity for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), a phospholipid component of cell membranes. [16]

Resistance

Neomycin resistance is conferred by either one of two kanamycin kinase genes. [17] Genes conferring neomycin-resistance are commonly included in DNA plasmids used to establish stable mammalian cell lines expressing cloned proteins in culture. Many commercially available protein expression plasmids contain a neo-resistance gene as a selectable marker. Currently, research is being performed to understand if derivatives of neomycin have the same antibiotic effects while still being effective against neomycin-resistant bacteria. [18]

Biosynthetic pathway

Neomycin was first isolated from the Streptomyces fradiae and Streptomyces albogriseus in 1949 (NBRC 12773). [19] Neomycin is a mixture of neomycin B (framycetin); and its epimer neomycin C, the latter component accounting for some 5–15% of the mixture. It is a basic compound that is most active with an alkaline reaction. [5] It is also thermostable and soluble in water (while insoluble in organic solvents). [5] Neomycin has good activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, but is ototoxic. Its use is thus restricted to the oral treatment of intestinal infections. [20]

Neomycin B is composed of four linked moieties: D-neosamine, 2-deoxystreptamine (2-DOS), D-ribose, and L-neosamine.[ citation needed ]

Neomycin A, also called neamine, contains D-neosamine and 2-deoxystreptamine. Six genes are responsible for neamine biosynthesis: DOIS gene (btrC, neo7); L-glutamine:DOI aminotransferase gene (btrS, neo6); a putative glycosyltransferase gene (btrM, neo8); a putative aminotransferase (similar to glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase) gene (btrB, neo18); a putative alcohol dehydrogenase gene (btrE, neo5); and another putative dehydrogenase (similar to chorine dehydrogenase and related flavoproteins) gene (btrQ, neo11). [21] A deacetylase acting to remove the acetyl group on N-acetylglucosamine moieties of aminoglycoside intermediates (Neo16) remains to be clarified (sequence similar to BtrD). [22]

Next is the attachment of the D-ribose via ribosylation of neamine, using 5-phosphoribosyl-1-diphosphate (PRPP) as the ribosyl donor (BtrL, BtrP); [23] glycosyltransferase (potential homologues RibF, LivF, Parf) gene (Neo15). [24]

Neosamine B (L-neosamine B) is most likely biosynthesized in the same manner as the neosamine C (D-niosamine) in neamine biosynthesis, but with an additional epimerization step required to account for the presence of the epimeric neosamine B in neomycin B. [25]

Neomycin B Neomycin B.png
Neomycin B

Neomycin B and C are 23-carbon molecules with a four-ring structure. Three of the rings are six-membered, and one is five-membered. [26] Neomycin B and Neomycin C are stereoisomers of each other and differ by only one stereocenter one giving the R conformation and the other giving the S conformation. [27] Neomycin C can undergo enzymatic synthesis from ribostamycin. [28]

Composition

Standard grade neomycin is composed of several related compounds including neomycin A (neamine), neomycin B (framycetin), neomycin C, and a few minor compounds found in much lower quantities. Neomycin B is the most active component in neomycin followed by neomycin C and neomycin A. Neomycin A is an inactive degradation product of the C and B isomers. [29] The quantities of these components in neomycin vary from lot-to-lot depending on the manufacturer and manufacturing process. [30]

DNA binding

Aminoglycosides such as neomycin are known for their ability to bind to duplex RNA with high affinity. [31] The association constant for neomycin with A-site RNA is in the 109 M−1 range. [32] However, more than 50 years after its discovery, its DNA-binding properties were still unknown. Neomycin has been shown to induce thermal stabilization of triplex DNA, while having little or almost no effect on the B-DNA duplex stabilization. [33] Neomycin was also shown to bind to structures that adopt an A-form structure, triplex DNA being one of them. Neomycin also includes DNA:RNA hybrid triplex formation. [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Streptomycin</span> Aminoglycoside antibiotic

Streptomycin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections, including tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex, endocarditis, brucellosis, Burkholderia infection, plague, tularemia, and rat bite fever. For active tuberculosis it is often given together with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide. It is administered by injection into a vein or muscle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gentamicin</span> Antibiotic medication

Gentamicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic used to treat several types of bacterial infections. This may include bone infections, endocarditis, pelvic inflammatory disease, meningitis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis among others. It is not effective for gonorrhea or chlamydia infections. It can be given intravenously, by intramuscular injection, or topically. Topical formulations may be used in burns or for infections of the outside of the eye. It is often only used for two days until bacterial cultures determine what specific antibiotics the infection is sensitive to. The dose required should be monitored by blood testing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aminoglycoside</span> Antibacterial drug

Aminoglycoside is a medicinal and bacteriologic category of traditional Gram-negative antibacterial medications that inhibit protein synthesis and contain as a portion of the molecule an amino-modified glycoside (sugar). The term can also refer more generally to any organic molecule that contains amino sugar substructures. Aminoglycoside antibiotics display bactericidal activity against Gram-negative aerobes and some anaerobic bacilli where resistance has not yet arisen but generally not against Gram-positive and anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Selman Waksman</span> Russian Jewish-American biochemist, microbiologist, and Nobel Laureate (1888–1973)

Selman Abraham Waksman was a Jewish Ukrainian inventor, Nobel Prize laureate, biochemist and microbiologist whose research into the decomposition of organisms that live in soil enabled the discovery of streptomycin and several other antibiotics. A professor of biochemistry and microbiology at Rutgers University for four decades, he discovered several antibiotics, and he introduced procedures that have led to the development of many others. The proceeds earned from the licensing of his patents funded a foundation for microbiological research, which established the Waksman Institute of Microbiology located at the Rutgers University Busch Campus in Piscataway, New Jersey (USA). In 1952, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "ingenious, systematic, and successful studies of the soil microbes that led to the discovery of streptomycin." Waksman and his foundation later were sued by Albert Schatz, one of his Ph.D. students and the discoverer of streptomycin, for minimizing Schatz's role in the discovery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rifamycin</span> Group of antibiotics

The rifamycins are a group of antibiotics that are synthesized either naturally by the bacterium Amycolatopsis rifamycinica or artificially. They are a subclass of the larger family of ansamycins. Rifamycins are particularly effective against mycobacteria, and are therefore used to treat tuberculosis, leprosy, and mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infections.

Neomycin/polymyxin B/bacitracin, also known as triple antibiotic ointment, is an antibiotic medication used to reduce the risk of infections following minor skin injuries. It contains the three antibiotics neomycin, polymyxin B, and bacitracin. It is for topical use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kanamycin A</span> Antibiotic

Kanamycin A, often referred to simply as kanamycin, is an antibiotic used to treat severe bacterial infections and tuberculosis. It is not a first line treatment. It is used by mouth, injection into a vein, or injection into a muscle. Kanamycin is recommended for short-term use only, usually from 7 to 10 days. Since antibiotics only show activity against bacteria, it is ineffective in viral infections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tobramycin</span> Chemical compound

Tobramycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic derived from Streptomyces tenebrarius that is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, particularly Gram-negative infections. It is especially effective against species of Pseudomonas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ribostamycin</span> Aminoglycoside antibiotic

Ribostamycin is an aminoglycoside-aminocyclitol antibiotic isolated from a streptomycete, Streptomyces ribosidificus, originally identified in a soil sample from Tsu City of Mie Prefecture in Japan. It is made up of 3 ring subunits: 2-deoxystreptamine (DOS), neosamine C, and ribose. Ribostamycin, along with other aminoglycosides with the DOS subunit, is an important broad-spectrum antibiotic with important use against human immunodeficiency virus and is considered a critically important antimicrobial by the World Health Organization., Resistance against aminoglycoside antibiotics, such as ribostamycin, is a growing concern. The resistant bacteria contain enzymes that modify the structure through phosphorylation, adenylation, and acetylation and prevent the antibiotic from being able to interact with the bacterial ribosomal RNAs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arbekacin</span> Antibiotic

Arbekacin (INN) is a semisynthetic aminoglycoside antibiotic which was derived from kanamycin. It is primarily used for the treatment of infections caused by multi-resistant bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Arbekacin was originally synthesized from dibekacin in 1973 by Hamao Umezawa and collaborators. It has been registered and marketed in Japan since 1990 under the trade name Habekacin. Arbekacin is no longer covered by patent and generic versions of the drug are also available under such trade names as Decontasin and Blubatosine.

<i>Streptomyces griseus</i> Species of bacterium

Streptomyces griseus is a species of bacteria in the genus Streptomyces commonly found in soil. A few strains have been also reported from deep-sea sediments. It is a Gram-positive bacterium with high GC content. Along with most other streptomycetes, S. griseus strains are well known producers of antibiotics and other such commercially significant secondary metabolites. These strains are known to be producers of 32 different structural types of bioactive compounds. Streptomycin, the first antibiotic ever reported from a bacterium, comes from strains of S. griseus. Recently, the whole genome sequence of one of its strains had been completed.

Streptogramin B is a subgroup of the streptogramin antibiotics family. These natural products are cyclic hexa- or hepta depsipeptides produced by various members of the genus of bacteria Streptomyces. Many of the members of the streptogramins reported in the literature have the same structure and different names; for example, pristinamycin IA = vernamycin Bα = mikamycin B = osteogrycin B.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plasmid-mediated resistance</span> Antibiotic resistance caused by a plasmid

Plasmid-mediated resistance is the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes which are carried on plasmids. Plasmids possess mechanisms that ensure their independent replication as well as those that regulate their replication number and guarantee stable inheritance during cell division. By the conjugation process, they can stimulate lateral transfer between bacteria from various genera and kingdoms. Numerous plasmids contain addiction-inducing systems that are typically based on toxin-antitoxin factors and capable of killing daughter cells that don't inherit the plasmid during cell division. Plasmids often carry multiple antibiotic resistance genes, contributing to the spread of multidrug-resistance (MDR). Antibiotic resistance mediated by MDR plasmids severely limits the treatment options for the infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, especially family Enterobacteriaceae. The global spread of MDR plasmids has been enhanced by selective pressure from antimicrobial medications used in medical facilities and when raising animals for food.

Paromamine 6'-oxidase (EC 1.1.3.43, btrQ (gene), neoG (gene), kanI (gene), tacB (gene)) is an enzyme with systematic name paromamine:oxygen 6'-oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

Neamine transaminase is an enzyme with systematic name neamine:2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

2-deoxy-scyllo-Inosose synthase is an enzyme with systematic name D-glucose-6-phosphate phosphate-lyase (2-deoxy-scyllo-inosose-forming). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction

Streptomyces isolates have yielded the majority of human, animal, and agricultural antibiotics, as well as a number of fundamental chemotherapy medicines. Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus of Actinomycetota, producing chemotherapy, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic drugs, and immunosuppressants. Streptomyces isolates are typically initiated with the aerial hyphal formation from the mycelium.

<i>Streptomyces antibioticus</i> Species of bacterium

Streptomyces antibioticus is a gram-positive bacterium discovered in 1941 by Nobel-prize-winner Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff. Its name is derived from the Greek "strepto-" meaning "twisted", alluding to this genus' chain-like spore production, and "antibioticus", referring to this species' extensive antibiotic production. Upon its first characterization, it was noted that S. antibioticus produces a distinct soil odor.

Streptomyces lavendulae is a species of bacteria from the genus Streptomyces. It is isolated from soils globally and is known for its production of medically useful biologically active metabolites. To see a photo of this organism click here.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Totomycin</span> Chemical compound

Hygromycin A is a modified cinnamic acid flanked by a furanose sugar and aminocyclitol. It is produced by Streptomyces hygroscopicus, first described in the 1950s.

References

  1. ↑ Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 507. ISBN   9783527607495. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2020-05-25.
  2. ↑ US 2799620,Waksman SA, Lechevalier HA,"Neomycin and process of preparation",issued 18 July 1957, assigned to Rutgers Research and Educational Foundation.
  3. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1952". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 2018-06-19. Retrieved 2008-10-29.
  4. ↑ "Neomycin". Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). 2007. pp. 2415–2416.
  5. 1 2 3 Waksman SA, Lechevalier HA (March 1949). "Neomycin, a New Antibiotic Active against Streptomycin-Resistant Bacteria, including Tuberculosis Organisms". Science. 109 (2830). New York, N.Y.: 305–7. Bibcode:1949Sci...109..305W. doi:10.1126/science.109.2830.305. PMID   17782716.
  6. ↑ Heidary N, Cohen DE (September 2005). "Hypersensitivity reactions to vaccine components". Dermatitis. 16 (3): 115–20. doi:10.1097/01206501-200509000-00004. PMID   16242081. S2CID   31248441.
  7. ↑ DermNet dermatitis/neomycin-allergy
  8. ↑ "Your Medicine Cabinet". DERMAdoctor.com, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-07-09. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
  9. ↑ "Neomycin sulfate, EP Susceptibility and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Data" (PDF). TOKU-E. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
  10. ↑ Zug KA, Warshaw EM, Fowler JF, Maibach HI, Belsito DL, Pratt MD, et al. (2009). "Patch-test results of the North American Contact Dermatitis Group 2005-2006". Dermatitis. 20 (3): 149–60. doi:10.2310/6620.2009.08097. PMID   19470301. S2CID   24088485.
  11. ↑ McNamara, Damian. (2010). Neomycin Is Named Contact Allergen of the Year Archived 2015-04-22 at archive.today
  12. ↑ Lee C, de Silva AJ (March 1979). "Interaction of neuromuscular blocking effects of neomycin and polymyxin B". Anesthesiology. 50 (3): 218–20. doi:10.1097/00000542-197903000-00010. PMID   219730. S2CID   13551808.
  13. ↑ Langman, A. Neomycin ototoxicity. Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery 1994, 110, 441-444.
  14. ↑ Langman, A. Neomycin ototoxicity. Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery 1994, 110, 441-444.
  15. ↑ Mehta R, Champney WS (September 2003). "Neomycin and paromomycin inhibit 30S ribosomal subunit assembly in Staphylococcus aureus". Current Microbiology. 47 (3): 237–43. doi:10.1007/s00284-002-3945-9. PMID   14570276. S2CID   23170091.
  16. ↑ Gabev E, Kasianowicz J, Abbott T, McLaughlin S (February 1989). "Binding of neomycin to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2)". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes. 979 (1): 105–12. doi:10.1016/0005-2736(89)90529-4. PMID   2537103.
  17. ↑ "G418/neomycin-cross resistance?". Archived from the original on 2009-06-25. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
  18. ↑ Bera, S.; Zhanel, G.; Schweizer, F. Design, Synthesis, and Antibacterial Activities of Neomycin−Lipid Conjugates: Polycationic Lipids with Potent Gram-Positive Activity | Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 2003, 51, 6160-6164.
  19. ↑ Waksman SA, Lechevalier HA, Harris DA (September 1949). "Neomycin—Production and Antibiotic Properties 123". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 28 (5 Pt 1): 934–9. doi:10.1172/JCI102182. PMC   438928 . PMID   16695766.
  20. ↑ Dewick M (March 2009). Medicinal natural products: a biosynthetic approach (3rd ed.). The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. pp. 508, 510, 511. ISBN   978-0-470-74168-9.
  21. ↑ Kudo F, Yamamoto Y, Yokoyama K, Eguchi T, Kakinuma K (December 2005). "Biosynthesis of 2-deoxystreptamine by three crucial enzymes in Streptomyces fradiae NBRC 12773". The Journal of Antibiotics. 58 (12): 766–74. doi: 10.1038/ja.2005.104 . PMID   16506694.
  22. ↑ Park JW, Park SR, Nepal KK, Han AR, Ban YH, Yoo YJ, et al. (October 2011). "Discovery of parallel pathways of kanamycin biosynthesis allows antibiotic manipulation". Nature Chemical Biology. 7 (11): 843–52. doi:10.1038/nchembio.671. PMID   21983602.
  23. ↑ Kudo F, Fujii T, Kinoshita S, Eguchi T (July 2007). "Unique O-ribosylation in the biosynthesis of butirosin". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 15 (13): 4360–8. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2007.04.040. PMID   17482823.
  24. ↑ Fan Q, Huang F, Leadlay PF, Spencer JB (September 2008). "The neomycin biosynthetic gene cluster of Streptomyces fradiae NCIMB 8233: genetic and biochemical evidence for the roles of two glycosyltransferases and a deacetylase". Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry. 6 (18): 3306–14. doi:10.1039/B808734B. PMID   18802637. S2CID   29942953.
  25. ↑ Llewellyn NM, Spencer JB (December 2006). "Biosynthesis of 2-deoxystreptamine-containing aminoglycoside antibiotics". Natural Product Reports. 23 (6): 864–74. doi:10.1039/B604709M. PMID   17119636.
  26. ↑ National Center for Biotechnology Information Neomycin. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/8378 (accessed Nov 5, 2023).
  27. ↑ National Center for Biotechnology Information Neomycin. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/8378 (accessed Nov 5, 2023).
  28. ↑ Kudo F, Kawashima T, Yokoyama K, Eguchi T (November 2009). "Enzymatic preparation of neomycin C from ribostamycin". The Journal of Antibiotics. 62 (11): 643–6. doi: 10.1038/ja.2009.88 . PMID   19713992.
  29. ↑ Cammack R, Attwood TK, Campbell PN, Parish JH, Smith AD, Stirling JL, Vella F (2006). "neomycin". Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 453.
  30. ↑ Tsuji K, Robertson JH, Baas R, McInnis DJ (September 1969). "Comparative study of responses to neomycins B and C by microbiological and gas-liquid chromatographic assay methods". Applied Microbiology. 18 (3): 396–8. doi:10.1128/AEM.18.3.396-398.1969. PMC   377991 . PMID   4907002.
  31. ↑ Jin Y, Watkins D, Degtyareva NN, Green KD, Spano MN, Garneau-Tsodikova S, Arya DP (January 2016). "Arginine-linked neomycin B dimers: synthesis, rRNA binding, and resistance enzyme activity". MedChemComm. 7 (1): 164–169. doi:10.1039/C5MD00427F. PMC   4722958 . PMID   26811742.
  32. ↑ Kaul M, Pilch DS (June 2002). "Thermodynamics of aminoglycoside-rRNA recognition: the binding of neomycin-class aminoglycosides to the A site of 16S rRNA". Biochemistry. 41 (24): 7695–706. doi:10.1021/bi020130f. PMID   12056901.
  33. ↑ Arya DP, Coffee RL (September 2000). "DNA triple helix stabilization by aminoglycoside antibiotics". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 10 (17): 1897–9. doi:10.1016/S0960-894X(00)00372-3. PMID   10987412.
  34. ↑ Arya DP, Coffee RL, Charles I (November 2001). "Neomycin-induced hybrid triplex formation". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 123 (44): 11093–4. doi:10.1021/ja016481j. PMID   11686727.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.