Streptomyces

Last updated

Streptomyces
Streptomyces sp 01.png
Slide culture
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Streptomycetales
Family: Streptomycetaceae
Genus: Streptomyces
Waksman and Henrici 1943 (Approved Lists 1980)
Type species
Streptomyces albus
(Rossi Doria 1891) Waksman and Henrici 1943
Diversity
About 550 species
Synonyms [1]
List
  • ActinacidiphilaMadhaiyan et al. 2022
  • ActinopycnidiumKrassilnikov 1962 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • ActinosporangiumKrassilnikov and Yuan 1961 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • ChainiaThirumalachar 1955 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • ElytrosporangiumFalcão de Morais et al. 1966 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • "Indiella" Brumpt 1906
  • "Indiellopsis" Brumpt 1913
  • KitasatoaMatsumae and Hata 1968 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • ?"Macrospora" Tsyganov et al. 1964
  • "Microechinospora" Konev et al. 1967
  • MicroellobosporiaCross, Lechevalier & Lechevalier 1963 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • "Oospora" Krüger 1904[ citation needed ]
  • StreptantibioticusMadhaiyan et al. 2022
  • StreptoverticilliumBaldacci 1958 (Approved Lists 1980)
  • ?"Verticillomyces" Shinobu 1965
Mycelial sheets Streptomyces mycelial sheets.webp

Streptomyces is the largest genus of Actinomycetota, and the type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae. [3] Over 700 species of Streptomyces bacteria have been described. [4] [5] [6] As with the other Actinomycetota, streptomycetes are gram-positive, and have very large genomes with high GC content. [5] [7] Found predominantly in soil and decaying vegetation, most streptomycetes produce spores, and are noted for their distinct "earthy" odor that results from production of a volatile metabolite, geosmin. [8] Different strains of the same species may colonize very diverse environments. [5]

Contents

Streptomycetes are characterised by a complex secondary metabolism. [7] Between 5-23% (average: 12%) of the protein-coding genes of each Streptomyces species are implicated in secondary metabolism. [5] Streptomycetes produce over two-thirds of the clinically useful antibiotics of natural origin (e.g., neomycin, streptomycin, cypemycin, grisemycin, bottromycins and chloramphenicol). [9] [10] The antibiotic streptomycin takes its name directly from Streptomyces. Streptomycetes are infrequent pathogens, though infections in humans, such as mycetoma, can be caused by S. somaliensis and S. sudanensis , and in plants can be caused by S. caviscabies , S. acidiscabies , S. turgidiscabies and S. scabies .

Taxonomy

Streptomyces is the type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae [11] and currently covers more than 700 species with the number increasing every year. [12] [6] It is estimated that the total number of Streptomyces species is close to 1600. [5] Acidophilic and acid-tolerant strains that were initially classified under this genus have later been moved to Kitasatospora (1997) [13] and Streptacidiphilus (2003). [14] Species nomenclature are usually based on their color of hyphae and spores.

Saccharopolyspora erythraea was formerly placed in this genus (as Streptomyces erythraeus).

Morphology

The genus Streptomyces includes aerobic, Gram-positive, multicellular, filamentous bacteria that produce well-developed vegetative hyphae (between 0.5-2.0 μm in diameter) with branches. They form a complex substrate mycelium that aids in scavenging organic compounds from their substrates. [15] Although the mycelia and the aerial hyphae that arise from them are amotile, mobility is achieved by dispersion of spores. [15] Spore surfaces may be hairy, rugose, smooth, spiny or warty. [16] In some species, aerial hyphae consist of long, straight filaments, which bear 50 or more spores at more or less regular intervals, arranged in whorls (verticils). Each branch of a verticil produces, at its apex, an umbel, which carries from two to several chains of spherical to ellipsoidal, smooth or rugose spores. [15] Some strains form short chains of spores on substrate hyphae. Sclerotia-, pycnidia-, sporangia-, and synnemata-like structures are produced by some strains.

Genomics

The complete genome of " S. coelicolor strain A3(2)" was published in 2002. [17] At the time, the "S. coelicolor" genome was thought to contain the largest number of genes of any bacterium. [17] The chromosome is 8,667,507 bp long with a GC-content of 72.1%, and is predicted to contain 7,825 protein-encoding genes. [17] In terms of taxonomy, "S. coelicolor A3(2)" belongs to the species S. violaceoruber , and is not a validly described separate species; "S. coelicolor A3(2)" is not to be mistaken for the actual S. coelicolor (Müller), although it is often referred to as S. coelicolor for convenience. [18] The transcriptome and translatome analyses of the strain A3(2) were published in 2016. [19]

The first complete genome sequence of S. avermitilis was completed in 2003. [20] Each of these genomes forms a chromosome with a linear structure, unlike most bacterial genomes, which exist in the form of circular chromosomes. [21] The genome sequence of S. scabiei , a member of the genus with the ability to cause potato scab disease, has been determined at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. At 10.1 Mbp long and encoding 9,107 provisional genes, it is the largest known Streptomyces genome sequenced, probably due to the large pathogenicity island. [21] [22]

The genomes of the various Streptomyces species demonstrate remarkable plasticity, via ancient single gene duplications, block duplications (mainly at the chromosomal arms) and horizontal gene transfer. [5] [23] The size of their chromosome varies from 5.7-12.1 Mbps (average: 8.5 Mbps), the number of chromosomally encoded proteins varies from 4983-10,112 (average: 7130), whereas their high GC content varies from 68.8-74.7% (average: 71.7%). [5] The 95% soft-core proteome of the genus consists of approximately 2000-2400 proteins. [5] The pangenome is open. [24] [25] In addition, significant genomic plasticity is observed even between strains of the same species, where the number of accessory proteins (at the species level) ranges from 250 to more than 3000. [5] Intriguingly, a correlation has been observed between the number of carbohydrate-active enzymes and secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (siderophores, e-Polylysin and type III lanthipeptides) that are related to competition among bacteria, in Streptomyces species. [5] Streptomycetes are major biomass degraders, mainly via their carbohydrate-active enzymes. [26] Thus, they also need to evolve an arsenal of siderophores and antimicrobial agents to suppress competition by other bacteria in these nutrient-rich environments that they create. [5] Several evolutionary analyses have revealed that the majority of evolutionarily stable genomic elements are localized mainly at the central region of the chromosome, whereas the evolutionarily unstable elements tend to localize at the chromosomal arms. [5] [27] [28] [29] [30] Thus, the chromosomal arms emerge as the part of the genome that is mainly responsible for rapid adaptation at both the species and strain level. [5]

Biotechnology

Biotechnology researchers have used Streptomyces species for heterologous expression of proteins. Traditionally, Escherichia coli was the species of choice to express eukaryotic genes, since it was well understood and easy to work with. [31] [32] Expression of eukaryotic proteins in E. coli may be problematic. Sometimes, proteins do not fold properly, which may lead to insolubility, deposition in inclusion bodies, and loss of bioactivity of the product. [33] Though E. coli strains have secretion mechanisms, these are of low efficiency and result in secretion into the periplasmic space, whereas secretion by a Gram-positive bacterium such as a Streptomyces species results in secretion directly into the extracellular medium. In addition, Streptomyces species have more efficient secretion mechanisms than E.coli. The properties of the secretion system is an advantage for industrial production of heterologously expressed protein because it simplifies subsequent purification steps and may increase yield. These properties among others make Streptomyces spp. an attractive alternative to other bacteria such as E. coli and Bacillus subtilis . [33] In addition, the inherently high genomic instability suggests that the various Streptomycetes genomes may be amenable to extensive genome reduction for the construction of synthetic minimal genomes with industrial applications. [5]

Plant pathogenic bacteria

Several species belonging to this genus have been found to be pathogenic to plants: [12]

  1. S. scabiei
  2. S. acidiscabies
  3. S. europaeiscabiei
  4. S. luridiscabiei
  5. S. niveiscabiei
  6. S. puniciscabiei
  7. S. reticuliscabiei
  8. S. stelliscabiei
  9. S. turgidiscabies (scab disease in potatoes)
  10. S. ipomoeae (soft rot disease in sweet potatoes)
  11. S. brasiliscabiei (first species identified in Brazil) [34]
  12. S. hilarionis and S. hayashii (new species identified in Brazil) [35]

Medicine

Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus, producing antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic drugs, and also a wide range of other bioactive compounds, such as immunosuppressants. [36] Almost all of the bioactive compounds produced by Streptomyces are initiated during the time coinciding with the aerial hyphal formation from the substrate mycelium. [15]

Antifungals

Streptomycetes produce numerous antifungal compounds of medicinal importance, including nystatin (from S. noursei ), amphotericin B (from S. nodosus ), [37] and natamycin (from S. natalensis ).

Antibacterials

Members of the genus Streptomyces are the source for numerous antibacterial pharmaceutical agents; among the most important of these are:

Clavulanic acid (from S. clavuligerus ) is a drug used in combination with some antibiotics (like amoxicillin) to block and/or weaken some bacterial-resistance mechanisms by irreversible beta-lactamase inhibition. Novel antiinfectives currently being developed include Guadinomine (from Streptomyces sp. K01-0509), [54] a compound that blocks the Type III secretion system of Gram-negative bacteria.

Antiparasitic drugs

S. avermitilis is responsible for the production of one of the most widely employed drugs against nematode and arthropod infestations, avermectin, [55] and thus its derivatives including ivermectin.

Other

Saptomycins D and E Saptomycin D and E Structures.svg
Saptomycins D and E

Less commonly, streptomycetes produce compounds used in other medical treatments: migrastatin (from S. platensis) and bleomycin (from S. verticillus) are antineoplastic (anticancer) drugs; boromycin (from S. antibioticus ) exhibits antiviral activity against the HIV-1 strain of HIV, as well as antibacterial activity. Staurosporine (from S. staurosporeus ) also has a range of activities from antifungal to antineoplastic (via the inhibition of protein kinases).

S. hygroscopicus and S. viridochromogenes produce the natural herbicide bialaphos.

Saptomycins are chemical compounds isolated from Streptomyces. [56]

Symbiosis

Sirex wasps cannot perform all of their own cellulolytic functions and so some Streptomyces do so in symbiosis with the wasps. [57] Book et al. have investigated several of these symbioses. [57] Book et al., 2014 and Book et al., 2016 identify several lytic isolates. [57] The 2016 study isolates Streptomyces sp. Amel2xE9 and Streptomyces sp. LamerLS-31b and finds that they are equal in activity to the previously identified Streptomyces sp. SirexAA-E. [57]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Bacillus</i> Genus of bacteria

Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria, a member of the phylum Bacillota, with 266 named species. The term is also used to describe the shape (rod) of other so-shaped bacteria; and the plural Bacilli is the name of the class of bacteria to which this genus belongs. Bacillus species can be either obligate aerobes which are dependent on oxygen, or facultative anaerobes which can survive in the absence of oxygen. Cultured Bacillus species test positive for the enzyme catalase if oxygen has been used or is present.

<i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> Bacterium, genetic engineering tool

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the causal agent of crown gall disease in over 140 species of eudicots. It is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative soil bacterium. Symptoms are caused by the insertion of a small segment of DNA, from a plasmid into the plant cell, which is incorporated at a semi-random location into the plant genome. Plant genomes can be engineered by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors.

<i>Bacillus subtilis</i> Catalase-positive bacterium

Bacillus subtilis, known also as the hay bacillus or grass bacillus, is a gram-positive, catalase-positive bacterium, found in soil and the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, humans and marine sponges. As a member of the genus Bacillus, B. subtilis is rod-shaped, and can form a tough, protective endospore, allowing it to tolerate extreme environmental conditions. B. subtilis has historically been classified as an obligate aerobe, though evidence exists that it is a facultative anaerobe. B. subtilis is considered the best studied Gram-positive bacterium and a model organism to study bacterial chromosome replication and cell differentiation. It is one of the bacterial champions in secreted enzyme production and used on an industrial scale by biotechnology companies.

<i>Mycobacterium smegmatis</i> Species of bacterium

Mycobacterium smegmatis is an acid-fast bacterial species in the phylum Actinomycetota and the genus Mycobacterium. It is 3.0 to 5.0 μm long with a bacillus shape and can be stained by Ziehl–Neelsen method and the auramine-rhodamine fluorescent method. It was first reported in November 1884, who found a bacillus with the staining appearance of tubercle bacilli in syphilitic chancres. Subsequent to this, Alvarez and Tavel found organisms similar to that described by Lustgarten also in normal genital secretions (smegma). This organism was later named M. smegmatis.

<i>Lacticaseibacillus casei</i> Species of bacterium

Lacticaseibacillus casei is an organism that belongs to the largest genus in the family Lactobacillaceae, a lactic acid bacteria (LAB), that was previously classified as Lactobacillus casei. This bacteria has been identified as facultatively anaerobic or microaerophilic, acid-tolerant, non-spore-forming bacteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avermectin</span> Drugs to treat parasitic worms and insect pests

The avermectins are a series of drugs and pesticides used to treat parasitic worm infestations and to reduce insect pests. They are a group of 16-membered macrocyclic lactone derivatives with potent anthelmintic and insecticidal properties. These naturally occurring compounds are generated as fermentation products by Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil actinomycete. Eight different avermectins were isolated in four pairs of homologue compounds, with a major (a-component) and minor (b-component) component usually in ratios of 80:20 to 90:10. Avermectin B1, a mixture of B1a and B1b, is the drug and pesticide abamectin. Other anthelmintics derived from the avermectins include ivermectin, selamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin.

<i>Pseudomonas stutzeri</i> Species of bacterium

Pseudomonas stutzeri is a Gram-negative soil bacterium that is motile, has a single polar flagellum, and is classified as bacillus, or rod-shaped. While this bacterium was first isolated from human spinal fluid, it has since been found in many different environments due to its various characteristics and metabolic capabilities. P. stutzeri is an opportunistic pathogen in clinical settings, although infections are rare. Based on 16S rRNA analysis, this bacterium has been placed in the P. stutzeri group, to which it lends its name.

<i>Streptomyces griseus</i> Species of bacterium

Streptomyces griseus is a species of bacteria in the genus Streptomyces commonly found in soil. A few strains have been also reported from deep-sea sediments. It is a Gram-positive bacterium with high GC content. Along with most other streptomycetes, S. griseus strains are well known producers of antibiotics and other such commercially significant secondary metabolites. These strains are known to be producers of 32 different structural types of bioactive compounds. Streptomycin, the first antibiotic ever reported from a bacterium, comes from strains of S. griseus. Recently, the whole genome sequence of one of its strains had been completed.

Streptomyces scabiei is a streptomycete bacterium species found in soils around the world. Unlike most of the 500 or so Streptomyces species it is a plant pathogen causing corky lesions to form on tuber and root crops as well as decreasing the growth of seedlings. Along with other closely related species it causes the potato disease common scab, which is an economically important disease in many potato growing areas. It was first described in 1892, being classified as a fungus, before being renamed in 1914 and again in 1948. Several other species of Streptomyces cause similar diseases to S. scabiei but other, more closely related species, do not.

<i>Streptomyces avermitilis</i> Species of bacterium

Streptomyces avermitilis is a species of bacteria in the genus Streptomyces. This bacterium was discovered by Satoshi Ōmura in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan.

<i>Penicillium rubens</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium rubens is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium and was the first species known to produce the antibiotic penicillin. It was first described by Philibert Melchior Joseph Ehi Biourge in 1923. For the discovery of penicillin from this species Alexander Fleming shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945. The original penicillin-producing type has been variously identified as Penicillium rubrum, P. notatum, and P. chrysogenum among others, but genomic comparison and phylogenetic analysis in 2011 resolved that it is P. rubens. It is the best source of penicillins and produces benzylpenicillin (G), phenoxymethylpenicillin (V) and octanoylpenicillin (K). It also produces other important bioactive compounds such as andrastin, chrysogine, fungisporin, roquefortine, and sorbicillins.

Streptomyces isolates have yielded the majority of human, animal, and agricultural antibiotics, as well as a number of fundamental chemotherapy medicines. Streptomyces is the largest antibiotic-producing genus of Actinomycetota, producing chemotherapy, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic drugs, and immunosuppressants. Streptomyces isolates are typically initiated with the aerial hyphal formation from the mycelium.

Mervyn James Bibb is an Emeritus Fellow at the John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK.

<i>Streptomyces antibioticus</i> Species of bacterium

Streptomyces antibioticus is a gram-positive bacterium discovered in 1941 by Nobel-prize-winner Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff. Its name is derived from the Greek "strepto-" meaning "twisted", alluding to this genus' chain-like spore production, and "antibioticus", referring to this species' extensive antibiotic production. Upon its first characterization, it was noted that S. antibioticus produces a distinct soil odor.

Streptomyces albidoflavus is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from soil from Poland. Streptomyces albidoflavus produces dibutyl phthalate and streptothricins.

Streptomyces albofaciens is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which produces oxytetracycline, spiramycin, albopeptin A, albopeptin B and alpomycin.

Streptomyces lavendulae is a species of bacteria from the genus Streptomyces. It is isolated from soils globally and is known for its production of medically useful biologically active metabolites. To see a photo of this organism click here.

Streptomyces glaucescens is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from soil. Streptomyces glaucescens produces tetracenomycin C, tetracenomycin D and tetracenomycin E.

Streptomyces sanglieri is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from soil from a hay meadow. Streptomyces sanglieri produces the antibiotic lactonamycin Z.

Streptomyces vietnamensis is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from forest soil in Vietnam.

References

  1. ↑ Euzéby JP, Parte AC. "Streptomyces". List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). Retrieved June 9, 2021.
  2. ↑ Van der Meij, A., Willemse, J., Schneijderberg, M.A., Geurts, R., Raaijmakers, J.M. and van Wezel, G.P. (2018) "Inter-and intracellular colonization of Arabidopsis roots by endophytic actinobacteria and the impact of plant hormones on their antimicrobial activity". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, 111(5): 679–690. doi:10.1007/s10482-018-1014-z
  3. ↑ Kämpfer P (2006). "The Family Streptomycetaceae, Part I: Taxonomy". In Dworkin M, Falkow S, Rosenberg E, Schleifer KH, Stackebrandt E (eds.). The Prokaryotes. pp. 538–604. doi:10.1007/0-387-30743-5_22. ISBN   978-0-387-25493-7.
  4. ↑ Euzéby JP (2008). "Genus Streptomyces". List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature. Retrieved 2008-09-28.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Nikolaidis, Marios; Hesketh, Andrew; Frangou, Nikoletta; Mossialos, Dimitris; Van de Peer, Yves; Oliver, Stephen G.; Amoutzias, Grigorios D. (June 2023). "A panoramic view of the genomic landscape of the genus Streptomyces". Microbial Genomics. 9 (6). doi: 10.1099/mgen.0.001028 . ISSN   2057-5858. PMC   10327506 . PMID   37266990. S2CID   259025020.
  6. 1 2 "Genus: Streptomyces". www.bacterio.net. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  7. 1 2 Madigan M, Martinko J, eds. (2005). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN   978-0-13-144329-7.[ page needed ]
  8. ↑ John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, ed. (2001-05-30). eLS (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020392.pub2. ISBN   978-0-470-01617-6.
  9. ↑ Kieser T, Bibb MJ, Buttner MJ, Chater KF, Hopwood DA (2000). Practical Streptomyces Genetics (2nd ed.). Norwich, England: John Innes Foundation. ISBN   978-0-7084-0623-6.[ page needed ]
  10. ↑ Bibb MJ (December 2013). "Understanding and manipulating antibiotic production in actinomycetes". Biochemical Society Transactions . 41 (6): 1355–64. doi:10.1042/BST20130214. PMID   24256223.
  11. ↑ Anderson AS, Wellington EM (May 2001). "The taxonomy of Streptomyces and related genera". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 51 (Pt 3): 797–814. doi: 10.1099/00207713-51-3-797 . PMID   11411701.
  12. 1 2 Labeda DP (October 2011). "Multilocus sequence analysis of phytopathogenic species of the genus Streptomyces". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 61 (Pt 10): 2525–2531. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.028514-0 . PMID   21112986.
  13. ↑ Zhang Z, Wang Y, Ruan J (October 1997). "A proposal to revive the genus Kitasatospora (Omura, Takahashi, Iwai, and Tanaka 1982)". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 47 (4): 1048–54. doi: 10.1099/00207713-47-4-1048 . PMID   9336904.
  14. ↑ Kim SB, Lonsdale J, Seong CN, Goodfellow M (2003). "Streptacidiphilus gen. nov., acidophilic actinomycetes with wall chemotype I and emendation of the family Streptomycetaceae (Waksman and Henrici (1943)AL) emend. Rainey et al. 1997". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 83 (2): 107–16. doi:10.1023/A:1023397724023. PMID   12785304. S2CID   12901116.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Chater K, Losick R (1984). "Morphological and physiological differentiation in Streptomyces". Microbial development. Vol. 16. pp. 89–115. doi:10.1101/0.89-115 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN   978-0-87969-172-1 . Retrieved 2012-01-19.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  16. ↑ Dietz A, Mathews J (March 1971). "Classification of Streptomyces spore surfaces into five groups". Applied Microbiology. 21 (3): 527–33. doi:10.1128/AEM.21.3.527-533.1971. PMC   377216 . PMID   4928607.
  17. 1 2 3 Bentley SD, Chater KF, Cerdeño-Tárraga AM, Challis GL, Thomson NR, James KD, et al. (May 2002). "Complete genome sequence of the model actinomycete Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2)". Nature. 417 (6885): 141–7. Bibcode:2002Natur.417..141B. doi: 10.1038/417141a . PMID   12000953. S2CID   4430218.
  18. ↑ Chater KF, Biró S, Lee KJ, Palmer T, Schrempf H (March 2010). "The complex extracellular biology of Streptomyces". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 34 (2): 171–98. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2009.00206.x . PMID   20088961.
  19. ↑ Jeong Y, Kim JN, Kim MW, Bucca G, Cho S, Yoon YJ, et al. (June 2016). "The dynamic transcriptional and translational landscape of the model antibiotic producer Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2)". Nature Communications. 7 (1): 11605. Bibcode:2016NatCo...711605J. doi:10.1038/ncomms11605. PMC   4895711 . PMID   27251447.
  20. ↑ Ikeda H, Ishikawa J, Hanamoto A, Shinose M, Kikuchi H, Shiba T, et al. (May 2003). "Complete genome sequence and comparative analysis of the industrial microorganism Streptomyces avermitilis". Nature Biotechnology. 21 (5): 526–31. doi: 10.1038/nbt820 . PMID   12692562.
  21. 1 2 Dyson P (1 January 2011). Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology. Horizon Scientific Press. p. 5. ISBN   978-1-904455-77-6 . Retrieved 16 January 2012.
  22. ↑ "Streptomyces scabies". Sanger Institute. Retrieved 2001-02-26.
  23. ↑ McDonald, Bradon R.; Currie, Cameron R. (2017-06-06). "Lateral Gene Transfer Dynamics in the Ancient Bacterial Genus Streptomyces". mBio. 8 (3): e00644–17. doi:10.1128/mBio.00644-17. ISSN   2150-7511. PMC   5472806 . PMID   28588130.
  24. ↑ Caicedo-Montoya, Carlos; Manzo-Ruiz, Monserrat; Ríos-Estepa, Rigoberto (2021). "Pan-Genome of the Genus Streptomyces and Prioritization of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters With Potential to Produce Antibiotic Compounds". Frontiers in Microbiology. 12: 677558. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.677558 . ISSN   1664-302X. PMC   8510958 . PMID   34659136.
  25. ↑ Otani, Hiroshi; Udwary, Daniel W.; Mouncey, Nigel J. (2022-11-07). "Comparative and pangenomic analysis of the genus Streptomyces". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 18909. Bibcode:2022NatSR..1218909O. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-21731-1. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   9640686 . PMID   36344558.
  26. ↑ Chater, Keith F.; Biró, Sandor; Lee, Kye Joon; Palmer, Tracy; Schrempf, Hildgund (March 2010). "The complex extracellular biology of Streptomyces". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 34 (2): 171–198. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2009.00206.x . ISSN   1574-6976. PMID   20088961.
  27. ↑ Lorenzi, Jean-Noël; Lespinet, Olivier; Leblond, Pierre; Thibessard, Annabelle (September 2019). "Subtelomeres are fast-evolving regions of the Streptomyces linear chromosome". Microbial Genomics. 7 (6): 000525. doi: 10.1099/mgen.0.000525 . ISSN   2057-5858. PMC   8627663 . PMID   33749576.
  28. ↑ Tidjani, Abdoul-Razak; Lorenzi, Jean-Noël; Toussaint, Maxime; van Dijk, Erwin; Naquin, Delphine; Lespinet, Olivier; Bontemps, Cyril; Leblond, Pierre (2019-09-03). "Massive Gene Flux Drives Genome Diversity between Sympatric Streptomyces Conspecifics". mBio. 10 (5): e01533–19. doi:10.1128/mBio.01533-19. ISSN   2150-7511. PMC   6722414 . PMID   31481382.
  29. ↑ Volff, J. N.; Altenbuchner, J. (January 1998). "Genetic instability of the Streptomyces chromosome". Molecular Microbiology. 27 (2): 239–246. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2958.1998.00652.x. ISSN   0950-382X. PMID   9484880. S2CID   20438399.
  30. ↑ Chen, Carton W.; Huang, Chih-Hung; Lee, Hsuan-Hsuan; Tsai, Hsiu-Hui; Kirby, Ralph (October 2002). "Once the circle has been broken: dynamics and evolution of Streptomyces chromosomes". Trends in Genetics. 18 (10): 522–529. doi:10.1016/s0168-9525(02)02752-x. ISSN   0168-9525. PMID   12350342.
  31. ↑ Brawner M, Poste G, Rosenberg M, Westpheling J (October 1991). "Streptomyces: a host for heterologous gene expression". Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2 (5): 674–81. doi:10.1016/0958-1669(91)90033-2. PMID   1367716.
  32. ↑ Payne GF, DelaCruz N, Coppella SJ (July 1990). "Improved production of heterologous protein from Streptomyces lividans". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 33 (4): 395–400. doi:10.1007/BF00176653. PMID   1369282. S2CID   19287805.
  33. 1 2 Binnie C, Cossar JD, Stewart DI (August 1997). "Heterologous biopharmaceutical protein expression in Streptomyces". Trends in Biotechnology. 15 (8): 315–20. doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(97)01062-7. PMID   9263479.
  34. ↑ Corrêa, Daniele Bussioli Alves; do Amaral, Danilo Trabuco; da Silva, Márcio José; Destéfano, Suzete Aparecida Lanza (July 2021). "Streptomyces brasiliscabiei, a new species causing potato scab in south Brazil". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 114 (7): 913–931. doi:10.1007/s10482-021-01566-y. PMID   33881637.
  35. ↑ Vitor, Lucas; Amaral, Danilo Trabuco; Corrêa, Daniele Bussioli Alves; Ferreira-Tonin, Mariana; Lucon, Emanuel Torres; Appy, Mariana Pereira; Tomaseto, Alex Augusto; Destéfano, Suzete Aparecida Lanza (15 June 2023). "Streptomyces hilarionis sp. nov. and Streptomyces hayashii sp. nov., two new strains associated with potato scab in Brazil". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 73 (6). doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.005916. PMID   37319004.
  36. ↑ Watve MG, Tickoo R, Jog MM, Bhole BD (November 2001). "How many antibiotics are produced by the genus Streptomyces?". Archives of Microbiology. 176 (5): 386–90. doi:10.1007/s002030100345. PMID   11702082. S2CID   603765.
  37. ↑ Procópio RE, Silva IR, Martins MK, Azevedo JL, Araújo JM (2012). "Antibiotics produced by Streptomyces". The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 16 (5): 466–71. doi: 10.1016/j.bjid.2012.08.014 . PMID   22975171.
  38. ↑ Akagawa H, Okanishi M, Umezawa H (October 1975). "A plasmid involved in chloramphenicol production in Streptomyces venezuelae: evidence from genetic mapping". Journal of General Microbiology. 90 (2): 336–46. doi: 10.1099/00221287-90-2-336 . PMID   1194895.
  39. ↑ Miao V, Coëffet-LeGal MF, Brian P, Brost R, Penn J, Whiting A, et al. (May 2005). "Daptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces roseosporus: cloning and analysis of the gene cluster and revision of peptide stereochemistry". Microbiology. 151 (Pt 5): 1507–1523. doi: 10.1099/mic.0.27757-0 . PMID   15870461.
  40. ↑ Woodyer RD, Shao Z, Thomas PM, Kelleher NL, Blodgett JA, Metcalf WW, et al. (November 2006). "Heterologous production of fosfomycin and identification of the minimal biosynthetic gene cluster". Chemistry & Biology. 13 (11): 1171–82. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2006.09.007. PMID   17113999.
  41. ↑ Peschke U, Schmidt H, Zhang HZ, Piepersberg W (June 1995). "Molecular characterization of the lincomycin-production gene cluster of Streptomyces lincolnensis 78-11". Molecular Microbiology. 16 (6): 1137–56. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1995.tb02338.x. PMID   8577249. S2CID   45162659.
  42. ↑ Dulmage HT (March 1953). "The production of neomycin by Streptomyces fradiae in synthetic media". Applied Microbiology. 1 (2): 103–6. doi:10.1128/AEM.1.2.103-106.1953. PMC   1056872 . PMID   13031516.
  43. ↑ Sankaran L, Pogell BM (December 1975). "Biosynthesis of puromycin in Streptomyces alboniger: regulation and properties of O-demethylpuromycin O-methyltransferase". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 8 (6): 721–32. doi:10.1128/AAC.8.6.721. PMC   429454 . PMID   1211926.
  44. ↑ Distler J, Ebert A, Mansouri K, Pissowotzki K, Stockmann M, Piepersberg W (October 1987). "Gene cluster for streptomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces griseus: nucleotide sequence of three genes and analysis of transcriptional activity". Nucleic Acids Research. 15 (19): 8041–56. doi:10.1093/nar/15.19.8041. PMC   306325 . PMID   3118332.
  45. ↑ Nelson M, Greenwald RA, Hillen W (2001). Tetracyclines in biology, chemistry and medicine. Birkhäuser. pp. 8–. ISBN   978-3-7643-6282-9 . Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  46. ↑ "What are Streptomycetes?". Hosenkin Lab; Hiroshima-University. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  47. ↑ Swan DG, Rodríguez AM, Vilches C, Méndez C, Salas JA (February 1994). "Characterisation of a Streptomyces antibioticus gene encoding a type I polyketide synthase which has an unusual coding sequence". Molecular & General Genetics. 242 (3): 358–62. doi:10.1007/BF00280426. PMID   8107683. S2CID   2195072.
  48. ↑ "Finto: MeSH: Streptomyces antibioticus". finto: Finnish Thesaurus and Ontology Service. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
  49. ↑ Atta HM (January 2015). "Biochemical studies on antibiotic production from Streptomyces sp.: Taxonomy, fermentation, isolation and biological properties". Journal of Saudi Chemical Society. 19 (1): 12–22. doi: 10.1016/j.jscs.2011.12.011 .
  50. ↑ Oh DC, Scott JJ, Currie CR, Clardy J (February 2009). "Mycangimycin, a polyene peroxide from a mutualist Streptomyces sp". Organic Letters. 11 (3): 633–6. doi:10.1021/ol802709x. PMC   2640424 . PMID   19125624.
  51. ↑ Chen TS, Chang CJ, Floss HG (June 1981). "Biosynthesis of boromycin". The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 46 (13): 2661–2665. doi:10.1021/jo00326a010.
  52. ↑ "CID=53385491". PubChem Compound Database. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
  53. ↑ Babczinski, Peter; Dorgerloh, Michael; Löbberding, Antonius; Santel, Hans-Joachim; Schmidt, Robert R.; Schmitt, Peter; Wünsche, Christian (1991). "Herbicidal activity and mode of action of vulgamycin". Pesticide Science. 33 (4): 439–446. doi:10.1002/ps.2780330406.
  54. ↑ Holmes TC, May AE, Zaleta-Rivera K, Ruby JG, Skewes-Cox P, Fischbach MA, et al. (October 2012). "Molecular insights into the biosynthesis of guadinomine: a type III secretion system inhibitor". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 134 (42): 17797–806. doi:10.1021/ja308622d. PMC   3483642 . PMID   23030602.
  55. ↑ Martín, Juan F; Rodríguez-García, Antonio; Liras, Paloma (2017-03-15). "The master regulator PhoP coordinates phosphate and nitrogen metabolism, respiration, cell differentiation and antibiotic biosynthesis: comparison in Streptomyces coelicolor and Streptomyces avermitilis". The Journal of Antibiotics . 70 (5). Japan Antibiotics Research Association (Nature Portfolio): 534–541. doi: 10.1038/ja.2017.19 . ISSN   0021-8820. PMID   28293039. S2CID   1881648.
  56. ↑ Abe, N.; Nakakita, Y.; Nakamura, T.; Enoki, N.; Uchida, H.; Munekata, M. (1993). "Novel antitumor antibiotics, saptomycins. I. Taxonomy of the producing organism, fermentation, HPLC analysis and biological activities". The Journal of Antibiotics. 46 (10): 1530–5. doi: 10.7164/antibiotics.46.1530 . PMID   8244880.
  57. 1 2 3 4 Li, Hongjie; Young, Soleil E.; Poulsen, Michael; Currie, Cameron R. (2021-01-07). "Symbiont-Mediated Digestion of Plant Biomass in Fungus-Farming Insects". Annual Review of Entomology . 66 (1). Annual Reviews: 297–316. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-040920-061140. ISSN   0066-4170. OSTI   1764729. PMID   32926791. S2CID   221724225.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.