Streptomyces antibioticus

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Streptomyces antibioticus
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Streptomycetales
Family: Streptomycetaceae
Genus: Streptomyces
Species:
S. antibioticus
Binomial name
Streptomyces antibioticus
(Waksman and Woodruff 1941) Waksman and Henrici 1948 (Approved Lists 1980)

Streptomyces antibioticus (previously known as Actinomyces antibioticus) is a gram-positive bacterium discovered in 1941 by Nobel-prize-winner Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff. [1] [2] Its name is derived from the Greek "strepto-" meaning "twisted", alluding to this genus' chain-like spore production, [3] and "antibioticus", referring to this species' extensive antibiotic production. [2] Upon its first characterization, it was noted that S. antibioticus produces a distinct soil odor. [2]

Contents

Discovery

Streptomyces antibioticus was discovered by Selman Waksman and H. Boyd Woodruff, who named the bacterium Actinomyces antibioticus. [2] In their 1941 publication, Waksman and Woodruff describe their use of the "bacterial-agar plate method", in which they mixed a suspension of E. coli with washed agar containing 1.5% NaCl and 0.5% K3PO4 . [2] To this blend, they added "fresh field or garden soil" that was diluted with sterile tap water, and plated their final mixture. [2] They concluded that "bacterial antagonists", that is, antibiotic producing organisms, would produce clear patches in the agar. [2] Through this method they isolated and characterized Actinomyces antibioticus. [2] Two years later, Waksman renamed the organism Streptomyces antibioticus. [3]

Characteristics

Phylogeny

Streptomycesantibioticus belongs to the family Streptomycetacae, [3] which contains two other genera: Micromonospora [3] and Kitasatospora . [4] 16S rRNA gene-based phylogeny shows that within the Streptomyces clade, the species S. antibioticus is more closely related to Streptomyces griseorubor than to any other Streptomyces species. [5] One study showed that these two species form a late-diverging clade within the phylogenetic tree of the genus Streptomyces. [5]

Genomics

The NCBI's GenBank contains thousands of DNA sequences for S. antibioticus genes, partial genome sequences, and three complete genome sequences. [6] The currently available S. antibioticus genomes range in size from 8 to 10 million basepairs. [6] As with other members of the Actinomycetes, the S. antibioticus genome is known to have a high GC content (>55%). [1]

Physiology and ecology

Streptomyces species produce differentiated, branch-like structures known as hyphae, which collectively make up the organism's mycelium (plural mycelia). [7] For Streptomyces antibioticus, as with other Streptomyces species, mycelia can be divided into two types: aerial and substrate. [7] The substrate mycelium is formed for vegetative growth, whereas the aerial mycelium is formed for the purpose of spore production. [7] Aerial hyphae branch out from the substrate mycelium and subsequently differentiate into chains of spores. [7]

Streptomyces antibioticus is known to be an aerobic microorganism that resides in soil communities. [3] S. antibioticus has been demonstrated to grow in temperatures ranging from 28-37 °C. [2] As an Actinomycete, this microbe is inferred to behave as a mesophile in laboratory settings, having an optimum growth temperature between 25-30 °C. [1] As a member of the genus Streptomyces, S. antibioticus is inferred to live off of organic matter in the soil, and possess the ability to degrade large polymers such as chitin and keratin. [1] S. antibioticus has been shown to grow on several types of media, including gelatin, Litmus milk, Czapek's agar, and Peptone media. [2]

Medical relevance

A unique trait of Streptomyces antibioticus is its ability to produce several antibiotics of different classes. [8] [9] Upon its discovery, it was found that S. antibioticus produced a then novel substance named Actinomycin. [2] This substance was then separated into two compounds: Actinomycin A and Actinomycin B. [2] Actinomycin A was found to be highly bacteriostatic (bacteria hindering) against all bacteria it was tested with. [2] Actinomycin B displayed little bacteriostatic activity but was shown to be highly bactericidal (bacteria killing), particularly towards gram-positive bacteria. [2] Actinomycin is also known to display antifungal properties. [2]

The antibiotic Boromycin is also produced by S. antibioticus. [10] This compound was first isolated from a S. antibioticus strain found in an African soil sample. [10] Boromycin is active against gram-positive bacteria, but inactive against gram-negative bacteria. [10] Boromycin has also been shown to have antifungal and antiprotozoal properties. [10]

Certain Streptomyces antibioticus strains produce antibiotics that have yet to be named and thoroughly characterized, such as the one mentioned in a 1998 study from Calcutta University. [9] The antibiotic described was found to show antimicrobial activity against gram-negative bacteria, gram-positive bacteria, and pathogenic fungi. [9]

In addition to producing antibiotics, one strain of S. antibioticus has been discovered to induce a different species of Streptomyces to produce antibiotics. [11] Research done by Li et al. from Osaka University studied a strain of S. antibioticus that produced a molecule with the ability to induce the organism Streptomyces virginiae to produce the antibiotic Virginiamycin. [11]

Presently, bacterial diseases persist as a substantial cause of death worldwide. [12] To further exacerbate this issue, the discovery antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria is steadily increasing, a problem that raises the demand for novel antibiotics. [12] Currently, over two thirds of the antibiotics clinically prescribed have been produced by species within the genus Streptomyces. [12] With the recent availability of whole genome sequences, Streptomyces species known for producing antibiotics are being studied for potential new antibiotics that may be present in their genomes, but not yet characterized. [13]

Related Research Articles

Enterobacteriaceae Family of bacteria

Enterobacteriaceae is a large family of Gram-negative bacteria. It was first proposed by Rahn in 1936, and now includes over 30 genera and more than 100 species. Its classification above the level of family is still a subject of debate, but one classification places it in the order Enterobacterales of the class Gammaproteobacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria. In 2016, the description and members of this family were emended based on comparative genomic analyses by Adeolu et al.

Actinomycetota Phylum of bacteria

The Actinomycetota are a phylum of mostly Gram-positive bacteria. They can be terrestrial or aquatic. They are of great economic importance to humans because agriculture and forests depend on their contributions to soil systems. In soil they help to decompose the organic matter of dead organisms so the molecules can be taken up anew by plants. While this role is also played by fungi, Actinomycetota are much smaller and likely do not occupy the same ecological niche. In this role the colonies often grow extensive mycelia, like a fungus would, and the name of an important order of the phylum, Actinomycetales, reflects that they were long believed to be fungi. Some soil actinomycetota live symbiotically with the plants whose roots pervade the soil, fixing nitrogen for the plants in exchange for access to some of the plant's saccharides. Other species, such as many members of the genus Mycobacterium, are important pathogens.

<i>Pseudomonas</i> Genus of Gram-negative bacteria

Pseudomonas is a genus of Gram-negative, Gammaproteobacteria, belonging to the family Pseudomonadaceae and containing 191 validly described species. The members of the genus demonstrate a great deal of metabolic diversity and consequently are able to colonize a wide range of niches. Their ease of culture in vitro and availability of an increasing number of Pseudomonas strain genome sequences has made the genus an excellent focus for scientific research; the best studied species include P. aeruginosa in its role as an opportunistic human pathogen, the plant pathogen P. syringae, the soil bacterium P. putida, and the plant growth-promoting P. fluorescens, P. lini, P. migulae, and P. graminis.

Selman Waksman American scientist, biochemist, microbiologist who discovered Streptomycin and many antibiotics

Selman Abraham Waksman was a Russian Empire-born Jewish-American inventor, biochemist and microbiologist whose research into the decomposition of organisms that live in soil enabled the discovery of streptomycin and several other antibiotics. A professor of biochemistry and microbiology at Rutgers University for four decades, he discovered a number of antibiotics, and he introduced procedures that have led to the development of many others. The proceeds earned from the licensing of his patents funded a foundation for microbiological research, which established the Waksman Institute of Microbiology located on the Rutgers University Busch Campus in Piscataway, New Jersey (USA). In 1952, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "ingenious, systematic and successful studies of the soil microbes that led to the discovery of streptomycin." Waksman and his foundation later were sued by Albert Schatz, one of his PhD students and first discoverer of streptomycin, for minimizing Schatz's role in the discovery of streptomycin.

<i>Actinomyces</i> Genus of bacteria

Actinomyces is a genus of the Actinomycetia class of bacteria. They all are Gram-positive. Actinomyces species are facultatively anaerobic, and they grow best under anaerobic conditions. Actinomyces species may form endospores, and while individual bacteria are rod-shaped, Actinomyces colonies form fungus-like branched networks of hyphae. The aspect of these colonies initially led to the incorrect assumption that the organism was a fungus and to the name Actinomyces, "ray fungus".

<i>Streptomyces</i> Genus of bacteria

Streptomyces is the largest genus of Actinobacteria and the type genus of the family Streptomycetaceae. Over 500 species of Streptomyces bacteria have been described. As with the other Actinobacteria, streptomycetes are gram-positive, and have genomes with high GC content. Found predominantly in soil and decaying vegetation, most streptomycetes produce spores, and are noted for their distinct "earthy" odor that results from production of a volatile metabolite, geosmin.

<i>Actinomycetales</i> Order of Actinomycota

The Actinomycetales are an order of Actinomycetota. A member of the order is often called an actinomycete. Actinomycetales are generally gram-positive and anaerobic and have mycelia in a filamentous and branching growth pattern. Some actinomycotes can form rod- or coccoid-shaped forms, while others can form spores on aerial hyphae. Actinomycetales bacteria can be infected by bacteriophages, which are called actinophages. Actinomycetales can range from harmless bacteria to pathogens with resistance to antibiotics.

Albert Schatz (scientist) American microbiologist (1920–2005)

Albert Israel Schatz was an American microbiologist and academic, best known as the discoverer of the antibiotic streptomycin, the first drug known to be effective for the treatment of tuberculosis. He graduated from Rutgers University in 1942 with a bachelor's degree in soil microbiology, and received his doctorate from Rutgers in 1945. It was his PhD research that directly led to the discovery of streptomycin.

<i>Burkholderia cepacia</i> complex Species of bacterium

Burkholderia cepacia complex (BCC), or simply Burkholderia cepacia, is a group of catalase-producing, lactose-nonfermenting, Gram-negative bacteria composed of at least 20 different species, including B. cepacia, B. multivorans, B. cenocepacia, B. vietnamiensis, B. stabilis, B. ambifaria, B. dolosa, B. anthina, B. pyrrocinia and B. ubonensis. B. cepacia is an opportunistic human pathogen that most often causes pneumonia in immunocompromised individuals with underlying lung disease. Patients with sickle-cell haemoglobinopathies are also at risk. The species complex also attacks young onion and tobacco plants, and displays a remarkable ability to digest oil. Burkholderia cepacia is also found in marine environment and some strain of Burkholderia cepacia can tolerate high salinity. S.I. Paul et al. (2021) isolated and biochemically characterized salt tolerant strains of Burkholderia cepacia from marine sponges of the Saint Martin's Island of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh.

Boromycin

Boromycin is a bacteriocidal polyether-macrolide antibiotic. It was initially isolated from the Streptomyces antibioticus, and is notable for being the first natural product found to contain the element boron. It is effective against most Gram-positive bacteria, but is ineffective against Gram-negative bacteria. Boromycin kills bacteria by negatively affecting the cytoplasmic membrane, resulting in the loss of potassium ions from the cell.

<i>Streptomyces griseus</i> Species of bacterium

Streptomyces griseus is a species of bacteria in the genus Streptomyces commonly found in soil. A few strains have been also reported from deep-sea sediments. It is a Gram-positive bacterium with high GC content. Along with most other streptomycetes, S. griseus strains are well known producers of antibiotics and other such commercially significant secondary metabolites. These strains are known to be producers of 32 different structural types of bioactive compounds. Streptomycin, the first antibiotic ever reported from a bacterium, comes from strains of S. griseus. Recently, the whole genome sequence of one of its strains had been completed.

<i>Saccharopolyspora erythraea</i> Species of bacterium

Saccharopolyspora erythraea, formerly known as Streptomyces erythraeus, is a species of actinomycete bacteria within the genus Saccharopolyspora.

Streptomyces scabies or Streptomyces scabiei is a streptomycete bacterium species found in soils around the world. Unlike most of the 500 or so Streptomyces species it is a plant pathogen causing corky lesions to form on tuber and root crops as well as decreasing the growth of seedlings. Along with other closely related species it causes the potato disease common scab, which is an economically important disease in many potato growing areas. It was first described in 1892, being classified as a fungus, before being renamed in 1914 and again in 1948. Several other species of Streptomyces cause similar diseases to S. scabies but other, more closely related species, do not.

Streptomonospora alba is a halophilic species of bacteria. YIM 90003(T) is the type strain. It is closest to Streptomonospora salina. Its genome sequence was reported in 2015.

<i>Actinoplanes italicus</i> Species of bacterium

Actinoplanes italicus is distinguished by the cherry-red color of its vegetative mycelium, and by the production of soluble pigments. It is also known to produce sporangia when cultured on starch or skim milk agar. Very few strains have been found and cultured, thus A. italicus is relatively uncharacterized.

Rathayibacter toxicus is a phytopathogenic bacterium known for causing annual ryegrass toxicity (ARGT) commonly found in South and Western Australia.

Streptomyces albidoflavus is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from soil from Poland. Streptomyces albidoflavus produces dibutyl phthalate and streptothricins.

Streptomyces lavendulae is a species of bacteria from the genus Streptomyces. It is isolated from soils globally and is known for its production of medically useful biologically active metabolites. To see a photo of this organism click here.

Streptomyces griseoruber is a bacterium species from the genus of Streptomyces which has been isolated from soil in Japan. Streptomyces griseoruber produces beromycin, actinomycin D, gombapyrone A, gombapyrone B, gombapyrone C, gombapyrone D and rhodomycins

Nocardiopsis sinuspersici is a species of bacteria that is an aerobic, Gram positive, alkalohalophilic, actinomycete. While species from the genus of Nocardiopsis have been found in a variety of environments, primarily soils, strain N. sinuspersici sp. nov was isolated from sandy rhizospheric soils from Sarbandar and Khoramshahr in Iran.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 M Goodfellow, and; Williams, S. T. (2003-11-28). "Ecology of Actinomycetes". Annual Review of Microbiology. 37: 189–216. doi:10.1146/annurev.mi.37.100183.001201. PMID   6357051.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Waksman, S. A.; Woodruff, H. B. (1941-08-01). "Actinomyces antibioticus, a New Soil Organism Antagonistic to Pathogenic and Non-pathogenic Bacteria". Journal of Bacteriology. 42 (2): 231–249. ISSN   0021-9193. PMC   374755 . PMID   16560451.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Waksman, S. A.; Henrici, A. T. (1943-10-01). "The Nomenclature and Classification of the Actinomycetes". Journal of Bacteriology. 46 (4): 337–341. ISSN   0021-9193. PMC   373826 . PMID   16560709.
  4. ↑ Gao, Beile; Gupta, Radhey S. (2012-03-01). "Phylogenetic framework and molecular signatures for the main clades of the phylum Actinobacteria". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 76 (1): 66–112. doi:10.1128/MMBR.05011-11. ISSN   1098-5557. PMC   3294427 . PMID   22390973.
  5. 1 2 Labeda, D. P.; Goodfellow, M.; Brown, R.; Ward, A. C.; Lanoot, B.; Vanncanneyt, M.; Swings, J.; Kim, S.-B.; Liu, Z. (2012-01-01). "Phylogenetic study of the species within the family Streptomycetaceae". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 101 (1): 73–104. doi:10.1007/s10482-011-9656-0. ISSN   1572-9699. PMID   22045019.
  6. 1 2 Benson, Dennis A.; Karsch-Mizrachi, Ilene; Lipman, David J.; Ostell, James; Sayers, Eric W. (2011-01-01). "GenBank". Nucleic Acids Research. 39 (Database issue): D32–37. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq1079. ISSN   1362-4962. PMC   3013681 . PMID   21071399.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Manteca, Angel; Fernandez, Marisol; Sanchez, Jesus (2006-03-01). "Cytological and biochemical evidence for an early cell dismantling event in surface cultures of Streptomyces antibioticus". Research in Microbiology. 157 (2): 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2005.07.003. ISSN   0923-2508. PMID   16171979.
  8. ↑ Benedict, R. G. (1953). "Antibiotics produced by Actinomycetes". Botanical Review. 19 (5): 229–320. doi:10.1007/bf02861819. JSTOR   4353501.
  9. 1 2 3 Haque, S.F.; Laskar, S.; Sen, S.K.; Pal, S.C. (1998). "Physicochemical Properties of Non-aromatic Broad-spectrum Antibiotic of Streptomyces antibioticus Sr15. 4". Microbiological Research. 153 (2): 153–156. doi:10.1016/s0944-5013(98)80034-7.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Chen, Tom S. S.; Chang, Ching-Jer; Floss, Heinz G. (1981-06-01). "Biosynthesis of boromycin". The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 46 (13): 2661–2665. doi:10.1021/jo00326a010. ISSN   0022-3263.
  11. 1 2 Li, Wang; Nihira, Takuya; Sakuda, Shohei; Nishida, Takuo; Yamada, Yasuhiro (1992). "New inducing factors for virginiamycin production from Streptomyces antibioticus". Journal of Fermentation and Bioengineering. 74 (4): 214–217. doi:10.1016/0922-338x(92)90112-8.
  12. 1 2 3 de Lima Procópio, Rudi Emerson; Silva, Ingrid Reis da; Martins, Mayra Kassawara; Azevedo, João Lúcio de; Araújo, Janete Magali de (2012). "Antibiotics produced by Streptomyces". The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 16 (5): 466–471. doi: 10.1016/j.bjid.2012.08.014 . PMID   22975171.
  13. ↑ Zhang, Hongyu; Wang, Hongbo; Wang, Yipeng; Cui, Hongli; Xie, Zeping; Pu, Yang; Pei, Shiqian; Li, Fuchao; Qin, Song (2012-07-01). "Genomic sequence-based discovery of novel angucyclinone antibiotics from marine Streptomyces sp. W007". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 332 (2): 105–112. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2012.02582.x . ISSN   0378-1097. PMID   22536997.
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