Major histocompatibility complex

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Major histocompatibility complex molecule
62-MajorHistocompatibilityComplex-1hsa.tif
Major histocompatibility complex protein (class I) in orange and pink, with a presented peptide in red. Membrane in grey. The transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains are shown in cartoon form. ( PDB: 1hsa )
Identifiers
SymbolHLA
InterPro IPR001039
Membranome 63

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a large locus on vertebrate DNA containing a set of closely linked polymorphic genes that code for cell surface proteins essential for the adaptive immune system. These cell surface proteins are called MHC molecules.

Contents

The name of this locus comes from its discovery through the study of transplanted tissue compatibility. [1] Later studies revealed that tissue rejection due to incompatibility is only a facet of the full function of MHC molecules, which is to bind an antigen derived from self-proteins, or from pathogens, and bring the antigen presentation to the cell surface for recognition by the appropriate T-cells. [2] MHC molecules mediate the interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells (WBCs), with other leukocytes or with body cells. The MHC determines donor compatibility for organ transplant, as well as one's susceptibility to autoimmune diseases.

In a cell, protein molecules of the host's own phenotype or of other biologic entities are continually synthesized and degraded. Each MHC molecule on the cell surface displays a small peptide (a molecular fraction of a protein) called an epitope. [3] The presented self-antigens prevent an organism's immune system from targeting its own cells. The presentation of pathogen-derived proteins results in the elimination of the infected cell by the immune system.

Diversity of an individual's self-antigen presentation, mediated by MHC self-antigens, is attained in at least three ways: (1) an organism's MHC repertoire is polygenic (via multiple, interacting genes); (2) MHC expression is codominant (from both sets of inherited alleles); (3) MHC gene variants are highly polymorphic (diversely varying from organism to organism within a species). [4] Sexual selection has been observed in male mice choosing to mate with females with different MHCs. [5] Also, at least for MHC I presentation, there has been evidence of antigenic peptide splicing, which can combine peptides from different proteins, vastly increasing antigen diversity. [6]

Discovery

The first descriptions of the MHC were made by British immunologist Peter Gorer in 1936. [7] MHC genes were first identified in inbred mice strains. Clarence Little transplanted tumors across different strains and found rejection of transplanted tumors according to strains of host versus donor. [8] George Snell selectively bred two mouse strains, attained a new strain nearly identical to one of the progenitor strains, but differing crucially in histocompatibility—that is, tissue compatibility upon transplantation—and thereupon identified an MHC locus. [9] Later Jean Dausset demonstrated the existence of MHC genes in humans and described the first human leucocyte antigen, the protein which we call now HLA-A2. Some years later  Baruj Benacerraf showed that polymorphic MHC genes not only determine an individual’s unique constitution of antigens but also regulate the interaction among the various cells of the immunological system. These three scientists have been awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine [10] for their discoveries concerning “genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions”.

The first fully sequenced and annotated MHC was published for humans in 1999 by a consortium of sequencing centers from the UK, USA and Japan in Nature. [11] It was a "virtual MHC" since it was a mosaic from different individuals. A much shorter MHC locus from chickens was published in the same issue of Nature. [12] Many other species have been sequenced and the evolution of the MHC was studied, e.g. in the gray short-tailed opossum ( Monodelphis domestica ), a marsupial, MHC spans 3.95 Mb, yielding 114 genes, 87 shared with humans. [13] Marsupial MHC genotypic variation lies between eutherian mammals and birds, taken as the minimal MHC encoding, but is closer in organization to that of nonmammals. The IPD-MHC Database [14] was created which provides a centralised repository for sequences of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) from a number of different species. As of the release on December 19, 2019, the database contains information on 77 species.

Genes

The MHC locus is present in all jawed vertebrates; it is assumed to have arisen about 450 million years ago. [15] Despite the difference in the number of genes included in the MHC of different species, the overall organization of the locus is rather similar. Usual MHC contains about a hundred genes and pseudogenes, not all of which are involved in immunity. In humans, the MHC region occurs on chromosome 6, between the flanking genetic markers MOG and COL11A2 (from 6p22.1 to 6p21.3 about 29Mb to 33Mb on the hg38 assembly), and contains 224 genes spanning 3.6 megabase pairs (3 600 000 bases). [11] About half have known immune functions. The human MHC is also called the HLA (human leukocyte antigen) complex (often just the HLA). Similarly, there is SLA (Swine leukocyte antigens), BoLA (Bovine leukocyte antigens), DLA for dogs, etc. However, historically, the MHC in mice is called the Histocompatibility system 2 or just the H-2, whereas it has been referred to as the RT1 complex in rats, and the B locus in chickens.[ citation needed ]

The MHC gene family is divided into three subgroups: MHC class I, MHC class II, and MHC class III. Among all those genes present in MHC, there are two types of genes coding for the proteins MHC class I molecules and MHC class II molecules that are directly involved in the antigen presentation. These genes are highly polymorphic, 19031 alleles of class I HLA, and 7183 of class II HLA are deposited for human in the IMGT database. [16]

ClassEncodingExpression
I (1) peptide-binding proteins, which select short sequences of amino acids for antigen presentation, as well as (2) molecules aiding antigen-processing (such as TAP and tapasin).One chain, called α, whose ligands are the CD8 receptor—borne notably by cytotoxic T cells—and inhibitory receptors borne by NK cells
II (1) peptide-binding proteins and (2) proteins assisting antigen loading onto MHC class II's peptide-binding proteins (such as MHC II DM, MHC II DQ, MHC II DR, and MHC II DP).Two chains, called α & β, whose ligands are the CD4 receptors borne by helper T cells.
III Other immune proteins, outside antigen processing and presentation, such as components of the complement cascade (e.g., C2, C4, factor B), the cytokines of immune signaling (e.g., TNF-α), and heat shock proteins buffering cells from stressesVarious

Proteins

T-cell receptor complexed with MHC-I and MHC-II 063-T-CellReceptor-MHC.tiff
T-cell receptor complexed with MHC-I and MHC-II

MHC class I

MHC class I molecules are expressed in some nucleated cells and also in platelets—in essence all cells but red blood cells. It presents epitopes to killer T cells, also called cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). A CTL expresses CD8 receptors, in addition to T-cell receptors (TCRs). When a CTL's CD8 receptor docks to a MHC class I molecule, if the CTL's TCR fits the epitope within the MHC class I molecule, the CTL triggers the cell to undergo programmed cell death by apoptosis. Thus, MHC class I helps mediate cellular immunity, a primary means to address intracellular pathogens, such as viruses and some bacteria, including bacterial L forms, bacterial genus Mycoplasma , and bacterial genus Rickettsia . In humans, MHC class I comprises HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C molecules.[ citation needed ]

The first crystal structure of Class I MHC molecule, human HLA-A2, was published in 1989. [17] The structure revealed that MHC-I molecules are heterodimers. They have a polymorphic heavy α-subunit whose gene occurs inside the MHC locus and small invariant β2 microglobulin subunit whose gene is usually located outside of it. Polymorphic heavy chain of MHC-I molecule contains N-terminal extra-cellular region composed by three domains, α1, α2, and α3, transmembrane helix to hold MHC-I molecule on the cell surface and short cytoplasmic tail. Two domains, α1 and α2, form deep peptide-binding groove between two long α-helices and the floor of the groove formed by eight β-strands. Immunoglobulin-like domain α3 involved in the interaction with CD8 co-receptor. β2 microglobulin provides stability of the complex and participates in the recognition of peptide-MHC class I complex by CD8 co-receptor. [18] The peptide is non-covalently bound to MHC-I, it is held by the several pockets on the floor of the peptide-binding groove. Amino acid side-chains that are most polymorphic in human alleles fill the central and widest portion of the binding groove, while conserved side-chains are clustered at the narrower ends of the groove.

Schematic view of MHC class I and MHC class II molecules MHC classe 1 i 2.jpg
Schematic view of MHC class I and MHC class II molecules

Classical MHC molecules present epitopes to the TCRs of CD8+ T lymphocytes. Nonclassical molecules (MHC class IB) exhibit limited polymorphism, expression patterns, and presented antigens; this group is subdivided into a group encoded within MHC loci (e.g., HLA-E, -F, -G), as well as those not (e.g., stress ligands such as ULBPs, Rae1, and H60); the antigen/ligand for many of these molecules remain unknown, but they can interact with each of CD8+ T cells, NKT cells, and NK cells. The oldest evolutionary nonclassical MHC class I lineage in humans was deduced to be the lineage that includes the CD1 and PROCR (also known as EPCR) molecules. This lineage may have been established before the origin of tetrapod species. [19] However, the only nonclassical MHC class I lineage for which evidence exists that it was established before the evolutionary separation of Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish plus tetrapods) is lineage Z of which members are found, together in each species with classical MHC class I, in lungfish and throughout ray-finned fishes; [20] why the Z lineage was well conserved in ray-finned fish but lost in tetrapods is not understood.

MHC class II

MHC class II can be conditionally expressed by all cell types, but normally occurs only on "professional" antigen-presenting cells (APCs): macrophages, B cells, and especially dendritic cells (DCs). An APC takes up an antigenic protein, performs antigen processing, and returns a molecular fraction of it—a fraction termed the epitope—and displays it on the APC's surface coupled within an MHC class II molecule (antigen presentation). On the cell's surface, the epitope can be recognized by immunologic structures like T-cell receptors (TCRs). The molecular region which binds to the epitope is the paratope.

On surfaces of helper T cells are CD4 receptors, as well as TCRs. When a naive helper T cell's CD4 molecule docks to an APC's MHC class II molecule, its TCR can meet and bind the epitope coupled within the MHC class II. This event primes the naive T cell. According to the local milieu, that is, the balance of cytokines secreted by APCs in the microenvironment, the naive helper T cell (Th0) polarizes into either a memory Th cell or an effector Th cell of phenotype either type 1 (Th1), type 2 (Th2), type 17 (Th17), or regulatory/suppressor (Treg), as so far identified, the Th cell's terminal differentiation.

MHC class II thus mediates immunization to—or, if APCs polarize Th0 cells principally to Treg cells, immune tolerance of—an antigen. The polarization during primary exposure to an antigen is key in determining a number of chronic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases and asthma, by skewing the immune response that memory Th cells coordinate when their memory recall is triggered upon secondary exposure to similar antigens. B cells express MHC class II to present antigens to Th0, but when their B cell receptors bind matching epitopes, interactions which are not mediated by MHC, these activated B cells secrete soluble immunoglobulins: antibody molecules mediating humoral immunity.

Class II MHC molecules are also heterodimers, genes for both α and β subunits are polymorphic and located within MHC class II subregion. The peptide-binding groove of MHC-II molecules is formed by the N-terminal domains of both subunits of the heterodimer, α1 and β1, unlike MHC-I molecules, where two domains of the same chain are involved. In addition, both subunits of MHC-II contain transmembrane helix and immunoglobulin domains α2 or β2 that can be recognized by CD4 co-receptors. [21] In this way, MHC molecules guide the type of lymphocytes that may bind to the given antigen with high affinity, as different lymphocytes express different T-Cell Receptor (TCR) co-receptors.

MHC class II molecules in humans have five to six isotypes. Classical molecules present peptides to CD4+ lymphocytes. Nonclassical molecules, also known as accessories, have intracellular functions. They are not exposed on cell membranes, but are found in internal membranes, where they assist with the loading of antigenic peptides onto classic MHC class II molecules. The important nonclassical MHC class II molecule DM is only found from the evolutionary level of lungfish, [22] although also in more primitive fishes both classical and nonclassical MHC class II are found. [23] [24]

Sr.NoFeature [25] Class I MHCClass II MHC
1Constituting polypeptide chainsα chain (45KDa in humans)

β2 chain (12 KDa in humans)

α chain (30–34 KDa in humans)

β chain (26–29 KDa in humans)

2Antigen binding domainα1and α2 domainsα1 and β1 domains
3Binds protein antigens of8–10 amino acids residues13–18 amino acids residues
4Peptide bending cleftFloor formed by β sheets and sides by α

helices, blocked at both the ends

Floor formed by β sheets and sides by α

helices, opened at both the ends

5Antigenic peptide motifs

involved in binding

Anchor residues located at amino and

carbon terminal ends

Anchor residues located almost uniformly

along the peptide

6Presents antigenic peptide toCD8+ T cellsCD4+ T cells

MHC class III

Unlike classes I and II, Class III molecules have physiological roles and are encoded between classes I and II on the short arm of human chromosome 6. Class III molecules include several secreted proteins with immune functions: components of the complement system (such as C2, C4, and B factor), cytokines (such as TNF-α, LTA, and LTB), and heat shock proteins.

Function

MHC is the tissue-antigen that allows the immune system (more specifically T cells) to bind to, recognize, and tolerate itself (autorecognition). MHC is also the chaperone for intracellular peptides that are complexed with MHCs and presented to T cell receptors (TCRs) as potential foreign antigens. MHC interacts with TCR and its co-receptors to optimize binding conditions for the TCR-antigen interaction, in terms of antigen binding affinity and specificity, and signal transduction effectiveness.

Essentially, the MHC-peptide complex is a complex of auto-antigen/allo-antigen. Upon binding, T cells should in principle tolerate the auto-antigen, but activate when exposed to the allo-antigen. Disease states occur when this principle is disrupted.

Antigen presentation: MHC molecules bind to both T cell receptor and CD4/CD8 co-receptors on T lymphocytes, and the antigen epitope held in the peptide-binding groove of the MHC molecule interacts with the variable Ig-Like domain of the TCR to trigger T-cell activation [26]

Autoimmune reaction: The presence of certain MHC molecules can increase the risk of autoimmune diseases more than others. HLA-B27 is an example. It is unclear how exactly having the HLA-B27 tissue type increases the risk of ankylosing spondylitis and other associated inflammatory diseases, but mechanisms involving aberrant antigen presentation or T cell activation have been hypothesized.

Tissue allorecognition: MHC molecules in complex with peptide epitopes are essentially ligands for TCRs. T cells become activated by binding to the peptide-binding grooves of any MHC molecule that they were not trained to recognize during positive selection in the thymus.

Antigen processing and presentation

MHC class I pathway: Proteins in the cytosol are degraded by the proteasome, liberating peptides internalized by TAP channel in the endoplasmic reticulum, there associating with MHC-I molecules freshly synthesized. MHC-I/peptide complexes enter Golgi apparatus, are glycosylated, enter secretory vesicles, fuse with the cell membrane, and externalize on the cell membrane interacting with T lymphocytes. MHC Class I processing.svg
MHC class I pathway: Proteins in the cytosol are degraded by the proteasome, liberating peptides internalized by TAP channel in the endoplasmic reticulum, there associating with MHC-I molecules freshly synthesized. MHC-I/peptide complexes enter Golgi apparatus, are glycosylated, enter secretory vesicles, fuse with the cell membrane, and externalize on the cell membrane interacting with T lymphocytes.

Peptides are processed and presented by two classical pathways:

Peptide binding for Class I and Class II MHC molecules, showing the binding of peptides between the alpha-helix walls, upon a beta-sheet base. The difference in binding positions is shown. Class I primarily makes contact with backbone residues at the Carboxy and amino terminal regions, while Class II primarily makes contacts along the length of the residue backbone. The precise location of binding residues is determined by the MHC allele. MHC Binding Diagram.png
Peptide binding for Class I and Class II MHC molecules, showing the binding of peptides between the alpha-helix walls, upon a beta-sheet base. The difference in binding positions is shown. Class I primarily makes contact with backbone residues at the Carboxy and amino terminal regions, while Class II primarily makes contacts along the length of the residue backbone. The precise location of binding residues is determined by the MHC allele.
Table 2. Characteristics of the antigen processing pathways
CharacteristicMHC-I pathwayMHC-II pathway
Composition of the stable peptide-MHC complexPolymorphic chain α and β2 microglobulin, peptide bound to α chainPolymorphic chains α and β, peptide binds to both
Types of antigen-presenting cells (APC)All nucleated cells Dendritic cells, mononuclear phagocytes, B lymphocytes, some endothelial cells, epithelium of thymus
T lymphocytes able to respond Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CD8+) Helper T lymphocytes (CD4+)
Origin of antigenic proteins cytosolic proteins (mostly synthesized by the cell; may also enter from the extracellular medium via phagosomes)Proteins present in endosomes or lysosomes (mostly internalized from extracellular medium)
Enzymes responsible for peptide generationCytosolic proteasome Proteases from endosomes and lysosomes (for instance, cathepsin)
Location of loading the peptide on the MHC molecule Endoplasmic reticulum Specialized vesicular compartment
Molecules implicated in transporting the peptides and loading them on the MHC molecules TAP (transporter associated with antigen processing)DM, invariant chain

T lymphocyte recognition restrictions

In their development in the thymus, T lymphocytes are selected to recognize the host's own MHC molecules, but not other self antigens. Following selection, each T lymphocyte shows dual specificity: The TCR recognizes self MHC, but only non-self antigens.

MHC restriction occurs during lymphocyte development in the thymus through a process known as positive selection. T cells that do not receive a positive survival signal — mediated mainly by thymic epithelial cells presenting self peptides bound to MHC molecules — to their TCR undergo apoptosis. Positive selection ensures that mature T cells can functionally recognize MHC molecules in the periphery (i.e. elsewhere in the body).

The TCRs of T lymphocytes recognise only sequential epitopes, also called linear epitopes, of only peptides and only if coupled within an MHC molecule. (Antibody molecules secreted by activated B cells, though, recognize diverse epitopes—peptide, lipid, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid—and recognize conformational epitopes, which have three-dimensional structure.)

In sexual mate selection

MHC molecules enable immune system surveillance of the population of protein molecules in a host cell, and greater MHC diversity permits greater diversity of antigen presentation. In 1976, Yamazaki et al demonstrated a sexual selection mate choice by male mice for females of a different MHC. Similar results have been obtained with fish. [29] Some data find lower rates of early pregnancy loss in human couples of dissimilar MHC genes. [30]

MHC may be related to mate choice in some human populations, a theory that found support by studies by Ober and colleagues in 1997, [31] as well as by Chaix and colleagues in 2008. [32] However, the latter findings have been controversial. [33] If it exists, the phenomenon might be mediated by olfaction, as MHC phenotype appears strongly involved in the strength and pleasantness of perceived odour of compounds from sweat. Fatty acid esters—such as methyl undecanoate, methyl decanoate, methyl nonanoate, methyl octanoate, and methyl hexanoate—show strong connection to MHC. [34]

In 1995, Claus Wedekind found that in a group of female college students who smelled T-shirts worn by male students for two nights (without deodorant, cologne, or scented soaps), the majority of women chose shirts worn by men of dissimilar MHCs, a preference reversed if the women were on oral contraceptives. [35] In 2005 in a group of 58 subjects, women were more indecisive when presented with MHCs like their own, [36] although with oral contraceptives, the women showed no particular preference. [37] No studies show the extent to which odor preference determines mate selection (or vice versa).

Evolutionary diversity

Most mammals have MHC variants similar to those of humans, who bear great allelic diversity, especially among the nine classical genes—seemingly due largely to gene duplication—though human MHC regions have many pseudogenes. [38] The most diverse loci, namely HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C, have roughly 6000, 7200, and 5800 known alleles, respectively. [39] Many HLA alleles are ancient, sometimes of closer homology to a chimpanzee MHC alleles than to some other human alleles of the same gene.

MHC allelic diversity has challenged evolutionary biologists for explanation. Most posit balancing selection (see polymorphism (biology)), which is any natural selection process whereby no single allele is absolutely most fit, such as frequency-dependent selection [40] and heterozygote advantage. Pathogenic coevolution, as a type of balancing selection, posits that common alleles are under greatest pathogenic pressure, driving positive selection of uncommon alleles—moving targets, so to say, for pathogens. As pathogenic pressure on the previously common alleles decreases, their frequency in the population stabilizes, and remain circulating in a large population. [41] Genetic drift is also a major driving force in some species. [42] [43] It is possible that the combined effects of some or all of these factors cause the genetic diversity. [44]

MHC diversity has also been suggested as a possible indicator for conservation, because large, stable populations tend to display greater MHC diversity than smaller, isolated populations. [45] [46] Small, fragmented populations that have experienced a population bottleneck typically have lower MHC diversity. For example, relatively low MHC diversity has been observed in the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), [47] Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), [48] and giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). [49] In 2007 low MHC diversity was attributed a role in disease susceptibility in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), native to the isolated island of Tasmania, such that an antigen of a transmissible tumor, involved in devil facial tumour disease, appears to be recognized as a self antigen. [50] To offset inbreeding, efforts to sustain genetic diversity in populations of endangered species and of captive animals have been suggested.

In ray-finned fish like rainbow trout, allelic polymorphism in MHC class II is reminiscent of that in mammals and predominantly maps to the peptide binding groove. [51] However, in MHC class I of many teleost fishes, the allelic polymorphism is much more extreme than in mammals in the sense that the sequence identity levels between alleles can be very low and the variation extends far beyond the peptide binding groove. [51] [52] [20] It has been speculated that this type of MHC class I allelic variation contributes to allograft rejection, which may be especially important in fish to avoid grafting of cancer cells through their mucosal skin. [53]

The MHC locus (6p21.3) has 3 other paralogous loci in the human genome, namely 19pl3.1, 9q33–q34, and 1q21–q25. It is believed that the loci arouse from the two-round duplications in vertebrates of a single ProtoMHC locus, and the new domain organizations of the MHC genes were a result of later cis-duplication and exon shuffling in a process termed "the MHC Big Bang." [54] Genes in this locus are apparently linked to intracellular intrinsic immunity in the basal Metazoan Trichoplax adhaerens . [55]

In transplant rejection

In a transplant procedure, as of an organ or stem cells, MHC molecules themselves act as antigens and can provoke immune response in the recipient, thus causing transplant rejection. MHC molecules were identified and named after their role in transplant rejection between mice of different strains, though it took over 20 years to clarify MHC's role in presenting peptide antigens to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). [56]

Each human cell expresses six MHC class I alleles (one HLA-A, -B, and -C allele from each parent) and six to eight MHC class II alleles (one HLA-DP and -DQ, and one or two HLA-DR from each parent, and combinations of these). The MHC variation in the human population is high, at least 350 alleles for HLA-A genes, 620 alleles for HLA-B, 400 alleles for DR, and 90 alleles for DQ. Any two individuals who are not identical twins, triplets, or higher order multiple births, will express differing MHC molecules. All MHC molecules can mediate transplant rejection, but HLA-C and HLA-DP, showing low polymorphism, seem least important.[ clarification needed ]

When maturing in the thymus, T lymphocytes are selected for their TCR incapacity to recognize self antigens, yet T lymphocytes can react against the donor MHC's peptide-binding groove, the variable region of MHC holding the presented antigen's epitope for recognition by TCR, the matching paratope. T lymphocytes of the recipient take the incompatible peptide-binding groove as nonself antigen. [ clarification needed ]

There are various types of transplant rejection that are known to be mediated by MHC (HLA):

In all of the above situations, immunity is directed at the transplanted organ, sustaining lesions. A cross-reaction test between potential donor cells and recipient serum seeks to detect presence of preformed anti-HLA antibodies in the potential recipient that recognize donor HLA molecules, so as to prevent hyperacute rejection. In normal circumstances, compatibility between HLA-A, -B, and -DR molecules is assessed. The higher the number of incompatibilities, the lower the five-year survival rate. Global databases of donor information enhance the search for compatible donors.

The involvement in allogeneic transplant rejection appears to be an ancient feature of MHC molecules, because also in fish associations between transplant rejections and (mis-)matching of MHC class I [57] [58] and MHC class II [59] were observed.

HLA biology

Codominant expression of HLA genes MHC expression.svg
Codominant expression of HLA genes

Human MHC class I and II are also called human leukocyte antigen (HLA). To clarify the usage, some of the biomedical literature uses HLA to refer specifically to the HLA protein molecules and reserves MHC for the region of the genome that encodes for this molecule, but this is not a consistent convention.

The most studied HLA genes are the nine classical MHC genes: HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C, HLA-DPA1, HLA-DPB1, HLA-DQA1, HLA-DQB1, HLA-DRA , and HLA-DRB1 . In humans, the MHC gene cluster is divided into three regions: classes I, II, and III. The A, B and C genes belong to MHC class I, whereas the six D genes belong to class II.

MHC alleles are expressed in codominant fashion. [60] This means the alleles (variants) inherited from both parents are expressed equally:

The set of alleles that is present in each chromosome is called the MHC haplotype. In humans, each HLA allele is named with a number. For instance, for a given individual, his haplotype might be HLA-A2, HLA-B5, HLA-DR3, etc... Each heterozygous individual will have two MHC haplotypes, one each from the paternal and maternal chromosomes.

The MHC genes are highly polymorphic; many different alleles exist in the different individuals inside a population. The polymorphism is so high, in a mixed population (nonendogamic), no two individuals have exactly the same set of MHC molecules, with the exception of identical twins.

The polymorphic regions in each allele are located in the region for peptide contact. Of all the peptides that could be displayed by MHC, only a subset will bind strongly enough to any given HLA allele, so by carrying two alleles for each gene, each encoding specificity for unique antigens, a much larger set of peptides can be presented.

On the other hand, inside a population, the presence of many different alleles ensures there will always be an individual with a specific MHC molecule able to load the correct peptide to recognize a specific microbe. The evolution of the MHC polymorphism ensures that a population will not succumb to a new pathogen or a mutated one, because at least some individuals will be able to develop an adequate immune response to win over the pathogen. The variations in the MHC molecules (responsible for the polymorphism) are the result of the inheritance of different MHC molecules, and they are not induced by recombination, as it is the case for the antigen receptors.

Because of the high levels of allelic diversity found within its genes, MHC has also attracted the attention of many evolutionary biologists. [61]

See also

Notes and references

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Bibliography

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antigen</span> Molecule triggering an immune response (antibody production) in the host

In immunology, an antigen (Ag) is a molecule, moiety, foreign particulate matter, or an allergen, such as pollen, that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response.

Histocompatibility, or tissue compatibility, is the property of having the same, or sufficiently similar, alleles of a set of genes called human leukocyte antigens (HLA), or major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Each individual expresses many unique HLA proteins on the surface of their cells, which signal to the immune system whether a cell is part of the self or an invading organism. T cells recognize foreign HLA molecules and trigger an immune response to destroy the foreign cells. Histocompatibility testing is most relevant for topics related to whole organ, tissue, or stem cell transplants, where the similarity or difference between the donor's HLA alleles and the recipient's triggers the immune system to reject the transplant. The wide variety of potential HLA alleles lead to unique combinations in individuals and make matching difficult.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human leukocyte antigen</span> Genes on human chromosome 6

The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system or complex of genes on chromosome 6 in humans which encode cell-surface proteins responsible for regulation of the immune system. The HLA system is also known as the human version of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) found in many animals.

Antigen processing, or the cytosolic pathway, is an immunological process that prepares antigens for presentation to special cells of the immune system called T lymphocytes. It is considered to be a stage of antigen presentation pathways. This process involves two distinct pathways for processing of antigens from an organism's own (self) proteins or intracellular pathogens, or from phagocytosed pathogens ; subsequent presentation of these antigens on class I or class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules is dependent on which pathway is used. Both MHC class I and II are required to bind antigens before they are stably expressed on a cell surface. MHC I antigen presentation typically involves the endogenous pathway of antigen processing, and MHC II antigen presentation involves the exogenous pathway of antigen processing. Cross-presentation involves parts of the exogenous and the endogenous pathways but ultimately involves the latter portion of the endogenous pathway.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MHC class I</span> Protein of the immune system

MHC class I molecules are one of two primary classes of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and are found on the cell surface of all nucleated cells in the bodies of vertebrates. They also occur on platelets, but not on red blood cells. Their function is to display peptide fragments of proteins from within the cell to cytotoxic T cells; this will trigger an immediate response from the immune system against a particular non-self antigen displayed with the help of an MHC class I protein. Because MHC class I molecules present peptides derived from cytosolic proteins, the pathway of MHC class I presentation is often called cytosolic or endogenous pathway.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DR</span> Subclass of HLA-D antigens that consist of alpha and beta chains

HLA-DR is an MHC class II cell surface receptor encoded by the human leukocyte antigen complex on chromosome 6 region 6p21.31. The complex of HLA-DR and peptide, generally between 9 and 30 amino acids in length, constitutes a ligand for the T-cell receptor (TCR). HLA were originally defined as cell surface antigens that mediate graft-versus-host disease. Identification of these antigens has led to greater success and longevity in organ transplant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DRA</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

HLA class II histocompatibility antigen, DR alpha chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HLA-DRA gene. HLA-DRA encodes the alpha subunit of HLA-DR. Unlike the alpha chains of other Human MHC class II molecules, the alpha subunit is practically invariable. However it can pair with, in any individual, the beta chain from 3 different DR beta loci, DRB1, and two of any DRB3, DRB4, or DRB5 alleles. Thus there is the potential that any given individual can form 4 different HLA-DR isoforms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bare lymphocyte syndrome</span> Medical condition

Bare lymphocyte syndrome is a condition caused by mutations in certain genes of the major histocompatibility complex or involved with the processing and presentation of MHC molecules. It is a form of severe combined immunodeficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antigen presentation</span> Vital immune process that is essential for T cell immune response triggering

Antigen presentation is a vital immune process that is essential for T cell immune response triggering. Because T cells recognize only fragmented antigens displayed on cell surfaces, antigen processing must occur before the antigen fragment can be recognized by a T-cell receptor. Specifically, the fragment, bound to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), is transported to the surface of the antigen-presenting cell, a process known as presentation. If there has been an infection with viruses or bacteria, the cell antigen-presenting cell will present an endogenous or exogenous peptide fragment derived from the antigen by MHC molecules. There are two types of MHC molecules which differ in the behaviour of the antigens: MHC class I molecules (MHC-I) bind peptides from the cell cytosol, while peptides generated in the endocytic vesicles after internalisation are bound to MHC class II (MHC-II). Cellular membranes separate these two cellular environments - intracellular and extracellular. Each T cell can only recognize tens to hundreds of copies of a unique sequence of a single peptide among thousands of other peptides presented on the same cell, because an MHC molecule in one cell can bind to quite a large range of peptides. Predicting which antigens will be presented to the immune system by a certain MHC/HLA type is difficult, but the technology involved is improving.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MHC class II</span> Protein of the immune system

MHC Class II molecules are a class of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules normally found only on professional antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, some endothelial cells, thymic epithelial cells, and B cells. These cells are important in initiating immune responses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DQ</span> Cell surface receptor protein found on antigen-presenting cells.

HLA-DQ (DQ) is a cell surface receptor protein found on antigen-presenting cells. It is an αβ heterodimer of type MHC class II. The α and β chains are encoded by two loci, HLA-DQA1 and HLA-DQB1, that are adjacent to each other on chromosome band 6p21.3. Both α-chain and β-chain vary greatly. A person often produces two α-chain and two β-chain variants and thus 4 isoforms of DQ. The DQ loci are in close genetic linkage to HLA-DR, and less closely linked to HLA-DP, HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C.

HLA-DP is a protein/peptide-antigen receptor and graft-versus-host disease antigen that is composed of 2 subunits, DPα and DPβ. DPα and DPβ are encoded by two loci, HLA-DPA1 and HLA-DPB1, that are found in the MHC Class II region in the Human Leukocyte Antigen complex on human chromosome 6 . Less is known about HLA-DP relative to HLA-DQ and HLA-DR but the sequencing of DP types and determination of more frequent haplotypes has progressed greatly within the last few years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-A</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

HLA-A is a group of human leukocyte antigens (HLA) that are encoded by the HLA-A locus, which is located at human chromosome 6p21.3. HLA is a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigen specific to humans. HLA-A is one of three major types of human MHC class I transmembrane proteins. The others are HLA-B and HLA-C. The protein is a heterodimer, and is composed of a heavy α chain and smaller β chain. The α chain is encoded by a variant HLA-A gene, and the β chain (β2-microglobulin) is an invariant β2 microglobulin molecule. The β2 microglobulin protein is encoded by the B2M gene, which is located at chromosome 15q21.1 in humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Minor histocompatibility antigen</span>

Minor histocompatibility antigen are peptides presented on the cellular surface of donated organs that are known to give an immunological response in some organ transplants. They cause problems of rejection less frequently than those of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Minor histocompatibility antigens (MiHAs) are diverse, short segments of proteins and are referred to as peptides. These peptides are normally around 9-12 amino acids in length and are bound to both the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II proteins. Peptide sequences can differ among individuals and these differences arise from SNPs in the coding region of genes, gene deletions, frameshift mutations, or insertions. About a third of the characterized MiHAs come from the Y chromosome. Prior to becoming a short peptide sequence, the proteins expressed by these polymorphic or diverse genes need to be digested in the proteasome into shorter peptides. These endogenous or self peptides are then transported into the endoplasmic reticulum with a peptide transporter pump called TAP where they encounter and bind to the MHC class I molecule. This contrasts with MHC class II molecules's antigens which are peptides derived from phagocytosis/endocytosis and molecular degradation of non-self entities' proteins, usually by antigen-presenting cells. MiHA antigens are either ubiquitously expressed in most tissue like skin and intestines or restrictively expressed in the immune cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DRB4</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Major histocompatibility complex, class II, DR beta 4, also known as HLA-DRB4, is a human gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DRB5</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

HLA class II histocompatibility antigen, DRB5 beta chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HLA-DRB5 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DQB1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Major histocompatibility complex, class II, DQ beta 1, also known as HLA-DQB1, is a human gene and also denotes the genetic locus that contains this gene. The protein encoded by this gene is one of two proteins that are required to form the DQ heterodimer, a cell surface receptor essential to the function of the immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Major histocompatibility complex, class II, DQ alpha 1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Major histocompatibility complex, class II, DQ alpha 1, also known as HLA-DQA1, is a human gene present on short arm of chromosome 6 (6p21.3) and also denotes the genetic locus which contains this gene. The protein encoded by this gene is one of two proteins that are required to form the DQ heterodimer, a cell surface receptor essential to the function of the immune system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-DRB3</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

HLA class II histocompatibility antigen, DRB3-1 beta chain is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HLA-DRB3 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HLA-F</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

HLA class I histocompatibility antigen, alpha chain F is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HLA-F gene. It is an empty intracellular molecule that encodes a non-classical heavy chain anchored to the membrane and forming a heterodimer with a β-2 microglobulin light chain. It belongs to the HLA class I heavy chain paralogues that separate from most of the HLA heavy chains. HLA-F is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus, and is also unique in the sense that it exhibits few polymorphisms in the human population relative to the other HLA genes; however, there have been found different isoforms from numerous transcript variants found for the HLA-F gene. Its pathways include IFN-gamma signaling and CDK-mediated phosphorylation and removal of the Saccharomycescerevisiae Cdc6 protein, which is crucial for functional DNA replication.