Fire ant

Last updated

Fire ant
Temporal range: Early Oligocene–Recent
Fire ants 01.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Myrmicinae
Tribe: Solenopsidini
Genus: Solenopsis
Westwood, 1840
Type species
Solenopsis geminata
Fabricius, 1804
Diversity [1]
201 species

Fire ants are several species of ants in the genus Solenopsis, which includes over 200 species. Solenopsis are stinging ants, and most of their common names reflect this, for example, ginger ants and tropical fire ants. Many of the names shared by this genus are often used interchangeably to refer to other species of ant, such as the term red ant, mostly because of their similar coloration despite not being in the genus Solenopsis. Both Myrmica rubra and Pogonomyrmex barbatus are common examples of non-Solenopsis ants being termed red ants. [2]

Contents

None of these names apply to all species of Solenopsis nor only to Solenopsis species; for example the colloquial names for several species of weaver ants in the genus Oecophylla in Southeast Asia include "fire ants" because of their similar coloration and painful bites; the two genera, however, are not closely related. Wasmannia auropunctata is another unrelated ant commonly called the "little fire ant" due to its potent sting. [3]

Appearance

Fire ant mound Redant.JPG
Fire ant mound
Detail of the head (Solenopsis geminata) CSIRO ScienceImage 11133 Tropical fire ant.jpg
Detail of the head (Solenopsis geminata)

The bodies of mature fire ants, like the bodies of all typical mature insects, are divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen, with three pairs of legs and a pair of antennae. Fire ants of those species invasive in the United States can be distinguished from other ants locally present by their copper brown head and thorax with a darker abdomen. The worker ants are blackish to reddish and their size varies from 2 to 6 mm (0.079 to 0.236 in). In an established nest these different sizes of ants are all present at the same time. [4]

Solenopsis spp. ants can be identified by three body features—a pedicel with two nodes, an unarmed propodeum, and antennae with 10 segments plus a two-segmented club. [5] Many ants bite, and formicine ants can cause irritation by spraying formic acid; myrmecine ants like fire ants have a dedicated venom-injecting sting, which injects an alkaloid venom, as well as mandibles for biting. [6]

Behavior

A fire ant worker, queen, and male (clockwise from bottom left) Solenopsis.jpg
A fire ant worker, queen, and male (clockwise from bottom left)

A typical fire ant colony produces large mounds in open areas, and feeds mostly on young plants, insects and seeds. Fire ants often attack small animals such as small lizards and can kill them. Unlike many other ants, which bite and then spray acid on the wound, fire ants bite only to get a grip and then sting (from the abdomen) and inject a toxic alkaloid venom called solenopsin, a compound from the class of piperidines. For humans, this is a painful sting, a sensation similar to what one feels when burned by fire (hence the name), and the after-effects of the sting can be deadly to sensitive people. [7] Fire ants are more aggressive than most native species, so have pushed many species away from their local habitat. One such species that Solenopsis ants parasitically take advantage of are bees, such as Euglossa imperialis , a nonsocial orchid bee species, from which the ants enter the cells from below the nest and rob the cell's contents. [8]

These ants are renowned for their ability to survive extreme conditions. They do not hibernate, but can survive cold conditions, although this is costly to fire ant populations as observed during several winters in Tennessee, where 80 to 90% of colonies died due to several consecutive days of extremely low temperatures. [9]

Fire ants have been known to form mutualistic relationships with several species of Lycaenidae and Riodinidae butterflies. [10] [11] In Lycaena rubidus , the larvae secrete a fluid that is high in sugar content. Fire ants bring the larvae back to the nest, and protect them through the pupal stage in exchange for feeding on the fluid. [11] In Eurybia elvina , fire ants were observed to frequently construct soil shelters over later instars of larvae on inflorescences on which the larvae are found. [10]

Fire ants nest in the soil, often near moist areas, such as river banks, pond shores, watered lawns, and highway shoulders. Usually, the nest will not be visible, as it will be built under objects such as timber, logs, rocks, or bricks. If no cover for nesting is available, dome-shaped mounds are constructed, but these are usually only found in open spaces, such as fields, parks, and lawns. These mounds can reach heights of 40 cm (16 in), [4] but can be even higher on heavier soils, standing at 1.0 m (3 ft 3 in) in height and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in diameter. [12] Colonies are founded by small groups of queens or single queens. Even if only one queen survives, within a month or so, the colony can expand to thousands of individuals. Some colonies may be polygynous (having multiple queens per nest). [13]

Fire ants are resilient and can survive floods. During Hurricane Harvey in Texas in 2017, clumps of fire ants, known as rafts, were seen clumped together on the surface of the water. Each clump had as many as 100,000 individual ants, which formed a temporary structure until finding a new permanent home. [14] Ants clumped in this way will recognize different fluid flow conditions and adapt their behavior accordingly to preserve the raft's stability. [15]

Fire ants dig tunnels efficiently using about 30% of the population of the colony, thereby avoiding congestion in tunnels. [16]

Queens, males and workers

Solenopsis winged reproductive females, queens and workers Fire ant queens 3589.jpg
Solenopsis winged reproductive females, queens and workers

Queen

Fire ant queens, the reproductive females in their colony, also are generally the largest. Their primary function is reproduction. Typically, a fire ant queen will seek to establish a new colony following a nuptial flight, wherein it will use its special venom to paralyze offending competitors, [17] in the absence of workers for defense. Fire ant queens may live up to seven years and can produce up to 1,600 eggs per day, and colonies will have as many as 250,000 workers. [12] [18] The estimated potential life span is around 5 years and 10 months to 6 years and 9 months. [19] Young, virgin fire ant queens have wings (as do male fire ants), but they often cut them off after mating. Although, occasionally a queen will keep its wings after mating and through her first year.

Males (drones)

Male fire ants mate with queens during a nuptial flight. After a male has successfully inseminated a queen, he will not get accepted back to the mother colony, and will eventually die outside the nest. [20]

Workers

The other roles in an ant colony are usually undertaken by workers. Fire ant workers are haphazardly divided into different size classes, namely minima, minor, media, and major workers. [21] The major ants are known for their larger size and more powerful mandibles typically used in macerating and storing food items (i.e. as repletes), while smaller workers take care of regular tasks (the main tasks in a colony are caring for the eggs/larvae/pupae, cleaning the nest, and foraging for food). [12] However, Solenopsis daguerrei colonies contain no workers, as they are considered social parasites. [22]

Invasive species

Sign for the Fire Ant Festival in Ashburn, Georgia Fire Ant Festival sign, Ashburn, GA, US.jpg
Sign for the Fire Ant Festival in Ashburn, Georgia

Although most fire ant species do not bother people and are not invasive, Solenopsis invicta, known in the United States as the red imported fire ant (or RIFA), is an invasive pest in many areas of the world, including the United States, Australia, China and Taiwan. [23] The RIFA was believed to have been accidentally introduced to these countries via shipping crates, particularly with Australia when they were first found in Brisbane in 2001. [24] These ants have now since been spotted in Sydney for the first time. [25] They were believed to be in the Philippines, but they are most likely to be misidentified for Solenopsis geminata ants. [26]

In the US, the FDA estimates that more than US$5 billion is spent annually on medical treatment, damage, and control in RIFA-infested areas. Furthermore, the ants cause approximately $750 million in damage annually to agricultural assets, including veterinarian bills and livestock loss, as well as crop loss. [27] Over 40 million people live in RIFA-infested areas in the southeastern United States. [28] It is estimated that 30–60% of the people living in fire ant-infested areas of the US are stung each year. [29] RIFA are currently found mainly in subtropical southeastern USA states including Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and parts of North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and California. [30]

Since September 2004, Taiwan has been seriously affected by the red fire ant. The US, Taiwan and Australia all have ongoing national programs to control or eradicate the species, but with the exception of those in Australia, none have been especially effective. In Australia, there is an intensive program costing A$175 million, although the fire ant has remained despite efforts. [31] By July 2013, multiple sites west of Brisbane were confirmed, including the Lockyer Valley, Muirlea and Goodna. [32] According to a study published in 2009, it took only seventy years for the lizards in parts of the United States to adapt to the ant's presence; they now have longer legs and new behaviors that aid them in escaping from the danger. [33]

Solenopsis invicta is the most famous species in this genus, especially in the US, however several other species are similarly dangerous and invasive, such as Solenopsis geminata , which has invaded most of the tropical countries, wreaking havoc in medical systems especially in unprepared countries and islands. [34]

Sting symptoms and treatment

A human leg three days after brief contact with a fire ant colony FireAntBite.jpg
A human leg three days after brief contact with a fire ant colony

The venom of fire ants is mainly (>95%) composed of oily alkaloids structurally derived from piperidine (also known as solenopsins) mixed with a small amount of toxic proteins. [35] [36] Fire ant stings are painful, characterised by a local burning sensation, followed by urticaria. [35] The sting site typically swells into a bump within hours, which can cause further pain and irritation, especially following several stings at the same place. The bump may develop into a white pustule within 24–36 hours which can become infected if scratched, but will spontaneously flatten within a few days if left alone. The pustules are obtrusive and uncomfortable while active and, if they become infected, may cause scarring. [37] Some people may become allergic to the venom, [38] and if untreated, may become increasingly sensitive to the point of experiencing anaphylaxis following fire ant stings, which requires emergency treatment. [34] Management of an emergency visit due to anaphylaxis is recommended with the use of adrenaline. [39] [34] It has been demonstrated that, whilst pustule formation results from the injected venom alkaloids, [40] allergy to fire ant stings is caused solely by venom allergenic proteins. [38]

First aid for fire ant stings includes external treatments and oral medicines. There are also many home remedies of varying efficacy, including immediate application of a solution of half bleach and half water, or aloe vera gel – the latter of which is also often included in over-the-counter creams that also include medically tested and verified treatments. [7] External, topical treatments include the anesthetic benzocaine, the antihistamine diphenhydramine, and the corticosteroid hydrocortisone. [7] Antihistamines or topical corticosteroids may help reduce the itching and will generally benefit local sting reactions. [41] Oral medicine include antihistamines. [42] Severe allergic reactions to fire ant stings, including severe chest pain, nausea, severe sweating, loss of breath, serious swelling, and slurred speech, [43] can be fatal if not treated. [44] [34]

Predators

Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula trap.jpg
Venus flytrap
A species of Drosera with its sticky leaves that trap many ants Drosera anglica ne1.JPG
A species of Drosera with its sticky leaves that trap many ants
Pseudacteon curvatus, phorid fly parasitoid of fire ants Phorid fly2.jpg
Pseudacteon curvatus , phorid fly parasitoid of fire ants

Phorid flies, or Phoridae, are a large family of small, hump-backed flies somewhat smaller than vinegar flies; two species in this family ( Pseudacteon tricuspis and Pseudacteon curvatus ) are parasitoids of the red imported fire ant in its native range in South America. Some 110 species of the genus Pseudacteon , or ant-decapitating flies, have been described. Members of Pseudacteon reproduce by laying eggs in the thorax of the ant. The first instar larvae migrates to the head, then develops by feeding on the hemolymph, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. After about two weeks, they cause the ant's head to fall off by releasing an enzyme that dissolves the membrane attaching the ant's head to its body. The fly pupates in the detached head capsule, emerging two weeks later. [45]

Pseudacteon flies appear to be important ecological constraints on Solenopsis species and they have been introduced throughout the southern United States, starting with Travis, Brazos, and Dallas counties in Texas, as well as south central Alabama, where the ants first entered North America. [46]

The Venus flytrap, a carnivorous plant, is native only to North and South Carolina in the United States. About 33% of the prey of the Venus flytrap are ants of various species. [47] They lure their prey with a sweet sap. Once the prey has entered the trap and within about three seconds of touching two or three "trigger hairs" on the surface of the trap, the leaf closes around the prey and digests it. The majority of ants that are captured include non-native RIFAs, and three other species of ants. [47] Other carnivorous plants, such as sundews ( Drosera ) and various kinds of pitcher plants also trap many ants.

Key natural enemies of fire ants also include other ant species which will attack prospective queens during the nest founding period, when there is an absence of workers to defend the emergent colony. [48] Frequent competitors of fire ant founding queens include other Solenopsis thief ant species, and some invasive pest species, such as the tawny crazy ant, and the black crazy ant. [17]

A number of entomopathogenic fungi are also natural enemies of fire ants, such as Beauveria bassiana [49] and Metarhizium anisopliae [50] . The latter is commercially available for the biological control (as an alternative to conventional pesticides) of various pest insects, and a new proposed technology has increased its shelf life and efficiency against fire ants. [51]

Species

The genus Solenopsis contains over 200 species. [1] Not all species included in the genus are known as fire ants, but most are small slow-moving ants which are unable to sting, called thief ants. "True" fire ants are but a group of about 20 species of Solenopsis which are larger, and will viciously sting in swarms whenever disturbed. [52] Some of the most studied species include:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ant</span> Family of insects

Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified. They are easily identified by their geniculate (elbowed) antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists.

Most ants are capable of biting, stinging, and spraying irritant chemicals. However, only relatively few species can harm humans; among which some can cause significant injury or, in rare cases, death. Like wasps, individual ants are capable of stinging multiple times as they do not lose their stingers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red imported fire ant</span> Invasive ant species

Solenopsis invicta, the fire ant, or red imported fire ant (RIFA), is a species of ant native to South America. A member of the genus Solenopsis in the subfamily Myrmicinae, it was described by Swiss entomologist Felix Santschi as a variant of S. saevissima in 1916. Its current specific name invicta was given to the ant in 1972 as a separate species. However, the variant and species were the same ant, and the name was preserved due to its wide use. Though South American in origin, the red imported fire ant has been accidentally introduced in Australia, New Zealand, several Asian and Caribbean countries, Europe and the United States. The red imported fire ant is polymorphic, as workers appear in different shapes and sizes. The ant's colours are red and somewhat yellowish with a brown or black gaster, but males are completely black. Red imported fire ants are dominant in altered areas and live in a wide variety of habitats. They can be found in rainforests, disturbed areas, deserts, grasslands, alongside roads and buildings, and in electrical equipment. Colonies form large mounds constructed from soil with no visible entrances because foraging tunnels are built and workers emerge far away from the nest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Instar</span> Developmental stage of arthropods between moults

An instar is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, which occurs between each moult (ecdysis) until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or assume a new form. Differences between instars can often be seen in altered body proportions, colors, patterns, changes in the number of body segments or head width. After shedding their exoskeleton (moulting), the juvenile arthropods continue in their life cycle until they either pupate or moult again. The instar period of growth is fixed; however, in some insects, like the salvinia stem-borer moth, the number of instars depends on early larval nutrition. Some arthropods can continue to moult after sexual maturity, but the stages between these subsequent moults are generally not called instars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black imported fire ant</span> Species of ant

The black imported fire ant, or simply BIFA, is a species of ant in the genus Solenopsis. It was long thought to either be a subspecies or a color variation of Solenopsis invicta, but is now recognized as its own species with a demonstratively different range and living habits. BIFA seem to be more tolerant of cold and a less dominant species than RIFA. Due to the BIFA higher body content of water than the RIFA conclusions demonstrate the certain factor plays a role in their differences of living regions. 

<i>Myrmecia</i> (ant) Genus of ants

Myrmecia is a genus of ants first established by Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius in 1804. The genus is a member of the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae. Myrmecia is a large genus of ants, comprising at least 93 species that are found throughout Australia and its coastal islands, while a single species is only known from New Caledonia. One species has been introduced out of its natural distribution and was found in New Zealand in 1940, but the ant was last seen in 1981. These ants are commonly known as bull ants, bulldog ants or jack jumper ants, and are also associated with many other common names. They are characterized by their extreme aggressiveness, ferocity, and painful stings. Some species are known for the jumping behavior they exhibit when agitated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jack jumper ant</span> Species of ant endemic to Australia

The jack jumper ant, also known as the jack jumper, jumping jack, hopper ant, or jumper ant, is a species of venomous ant native to Australia. Most frequently found in Tasmania and southeast mainland Australia, it is a member of the genus Myrmecia, subfamily Myrmeciinae, and was formally described and named by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858. This species is known for its ability to jump long distances. These ants are large; workers and males are about the same size: 12 to 14 mm for workers, and 11 to 12 mm for males. The queen measures roughly 14 to 16 mm long and is similar in appearance to workers, whereas males are identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles.

Solenopsin is a lipophilic alkaloid with the molecular formula C17H35N found in the venom of fire ants (Solenopsis). It is considered the primary toxin in the venom and may be the component responsible for the cardiorespiratory failure in people who experience excessive fire ant stings.

<i>Monomorium</i> Genus of ants

Monomorium is a genus of ants in the subfamily Myrmicinae. As of 2013 it contains about 396 species. It is distributed around the world, with many species native to the Old World tropics. It is considered to be "one of the more important groups of ants," considering its widespread distribution, its diversity, and its variety of morphological and biological characteristics. It also includes several familiar pest species, such as the pharaoh ant and the flower ant.

<i>Solenopsis molesta</i> Species of ant

Solenopsis molesta is the best known species of Solenopsisthief ants. They get their names from their habit of nesting close to other ant nests, from which they steal food. They are also called grease ants because they are attracted to grease. Nuptial flight in this species occur from late July through early fall.

<i>Solenopsis geminata</i> Species of fire ant

Solenopsis geminata or tropical fire ant is a species of fire ants, described by Fabricius in 1804, in the tribe Solenopsidini; it was originally placed in the Atta genus. This species has a pan-tropical distribution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rasberry crazy ant</span> Species of ant

The tawny crazy ant or Rasberry crazy ant, Nylanderia fulva, is an ant originating in South America. Like the longhorn crazy ant, this species is called "crazy ant" because of its quick, unpredictable movements. It is sometimes called the "Rasberry crazy ant" in Texas after the exterminator Tom Rasberry, who noticed that the ants were increasing in numbers in 2002. Scientists have reorganised the genera taxonomy within this clade of ants, and now it is identified as Nylanderia fulva.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green-head ant</span> Species of ant

The green-head ant is a species of ant that is endemic to Australia. It was described by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 as a member of the genus Rhytidoponera in the subfamily Ectatomminae. These ants measure between 5 and 7 mm. The queens and workers look similar, differing only in size, with the males being the smallest. They are well known for their distinctive metallic appearance, which varies from green to purple or even reddish-violet. Among the most widespread of all insects in Australia, green-head ants are found in almost every Australian state, but are absent in Tasmania. They have also been introduced in New Zealand, where several populations have been established.

<i>Solenopsis saevissima</i> Species of ant

Solenopsis saevissima, commonly known in Brazil as formiga de fogo, formiga-vermelha, or formiga-lava-pes, is one of more than 185 species in the genus Solenopsis. It, along with 13 other species, is also a member of the Solenopsis saevissima species group which are popularly known as fire ants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red imported fire ants in the United States</span>

The red imported fire ant, or simply RIFA, is one of over 280 species in the widespread genus Solenopsis. It is native to South America but it has become both a pest and a health hazard in the southern United States as well as a number of other countries.

<i>Myrmecia nigrocincta</i> Species of ant

Myrmecia nigrocincta, commonly known as the jumper ant or jumping jack, is an ant of the genus Myrmecia. The species was first described by Frederick Smith in 1858. Colonies of this ant are abundant in eastern Australia. Ants of this species are known for their ability to jump up to 10 centimetres, and they also have a powerful, venomous sting. Rather than foraging on the ground, M. nigrocincta prefer to forage in trees where they are known to pollinate certain flowers.

The toxicology of fire ant venom is relatively well studied. The venom plays a central role in the biology of Red imported fire ants, such as in capturing prey, and in defending itself from competitors, assailants, and diseases. Some 14 million people are stung annually in the United States, suffering reactions that vary from mild discomfort, to pustule formation, swelling, and in rare cases, systemic reactions followed by anaphylactic shock. Fire ant venoms are mainly composed (>95%) of a complex mixture of insoluble alkaloids added to a watery solution of toxic proteins. For the Red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta Buren there are currently 46 described proteins, of which four are well-characterised as potent allergens.

<i>Brachymyrmex patagonicus</i> Species of ant

Brachymyrmex patagonicus is a species of ant in the family Formicidae. B. patagonicus, commonly known as the dark rover ant, is native to Argentina and Paraguay. They were first reported in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana in 1978 from a single colony collected in 1976. It is believed that the species was introduced through New Orleans, which is a common entry point for many tropical species, but other locations such as Mobile, Alabama, or Pensacola, Florida, are also likely. For many years B. patagonicus, B. musculus, and B. obscurior were misidentified as being separate species but after a comparison of specimens from the Louisiana State University Arthropod Collection (LSUC), it was found that all three were the same species. B. patagonicus is considered a nuisance pest due to their tendency to infest man made structures but they have received a lack of attention because they do not bite, sting, or carry disease.

Pseudacteon tricuspis is a parasitic phorid fly that decapitates its host, the imported Solenopsis invicta fire ant. There are over 70 described species within the Pseudacteon genus, which parasitize a variety of ant species. However, P. tricuspis is very specific to its host ant and will not attack other native ant species, making it a good biological control against the fire ant. P. tricuspis was also introduced into the United States for this purpose. Aside from the United States, P. tricuspis has also been found in South America, Europe, and Asia. Female P. tricuspis deposit their eggs directly into the fire ant host. Deposition into the ant host determines the sex of the egg, which grows within the host until adulthood, killing and decapitating the host in the process. Interestingly, P. tricuspis has a male-biased sex ratio, where the males are smaller than the females.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ant supercolony</span> Exceptionally large ant colony

An ant supercolony is an exceptionally large ant colony, consisting of a high number of spatially separated but socially connected nests of a single ant species, spread over a large area without territorial borders. Supercolonies are typically polygynous, containing many egg-laying females. Workers and queens from different nests within the same supercolony can freely move among the nests, and all workers cooperate indiscriminately with each other in collecting food and care of the brood, and show no apparent mutual aggressive behavior.

References

  1. 1 2 Bolton, B. (2014). "Solenopsis". AntCat. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
  2. ↑ Reins, Dusty. "Species: Pogonomyrmex barbatus - Red Harvester Ant". Wildcat Bluff Nature Center. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  3. ↑ "Wasmannia auropunctata". Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk project (HEAR). Retrieved 9 July 2015.
  4. 1 2 "Fire ant identification". Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Queensland Government). 30 July 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  5. ↑ "Red Imported Fire Ant - UC Statewide IPM Program". University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources. 25 April 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  6. ↑ Yi, GB; McClendon, D; Desaiah, D; Goddard, J; Lister, A; Moffitt, J; Meer, RK; deShazo, R; Lee, KS; Rockhold, RW (2002). "Fire ant venom alkaloid, isosolenopsin A, a potent and selective inhibitor of neuronal nitric oxide synthase". International Journal of Toxicology. 22 (2): 81–6. doi: 10.1080/10915810305090 . PMID   12745988. S2CID   23324548.
  7. 1 2 3 Drees, Bastiaan M. (December 2002). "Medical Problems and Treatment Considerations for the Red Imported Fire Ant" (PDF). Texas A&M University (Texas Imported Fire Ant Research and Management Project). Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  8. ↑ Roberts, R. B.; Dodson, Calaway H. (1967). "Nesting biology of two communal bees, Euglossa imperialis and Euglossa ignita (Hymenoptera: Apidae), including description of larvae". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 60 (5): 1007–1014. doi:10.1093/aesa/60.5.1007.
  9. ↑ Walter R. Tschinkel (2006). The Fire Ants . Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p.  89. ISBN   978-0-674-02207-2.
  10. 1 2 Horvitz, Carol C.; Turnbull, Christine; Harvey, Donald J. (1987-07-01). "Biology of Immature Eurybia elvina (Lepidoptera: Riodinidae), a Myrmecophilous Metalmark Butterfly". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 80 (4): 513–519. doi:10.1093/aesa/80.4.513. ISSN   0013-8746.
  11. 1 2 Watt, Loren (2001). "Lycaena rubidus". Animal Diversity Web.
  12. 1 2 3 Lockley, Timothy C. "Imported Fire Ants". University of Minnesota (IPM World Textbook). Archived from the original on 30 December 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  13. ↑ Kintz-Early, Janet; Parris, Leslie; Zettler, Jennifer; Bast, Josh (September 2003). "Evidence of polygynous red imported fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in South Carolina". Florida Entomologist. 86 (3): 381–382. doi: 10.1653/0015-4040(2003)086[0381:EOPRIF]2.0.CO;2 . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  14. ↑ "Floating fire ants form rafts in Houston floodwaters". BBC. London. August 2017. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
  15. ↑ Ouellette, Jennifer (16 September 2022). "Fire ant rafts form because of the Cheerios effect, study concludes". Ars Technica. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
  16. ↑ Gorman, James (2018-08-16). "The Secret to Ant Efficiency Is Idleness". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2019-01-17.
  17. 1 2 Fox, Eduardo G.P.; Wu, Xiaoqing; Wang, Lei; Chen, Li; Lu, Yong-Yue; Xu, Yijuan (February 2019). "Queen venom isosolenopsin A delivers rapid incapacitation of fire ant competitors". Toxicon. 158: 77–83. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.428. PMID   30529381. S2CID   54481057.
  18. ↑ Vinson, S.B.; Sorenson, A.A. (1986). Imported Fire Ants: Life History and Impact. Austin, Texas: The Texas Department of Agriculture.
  19. ↑ Tschinkel, Walter R. (1987). "Fire Ant Queen Longevity and Age: Estimation by Sperm Depletion" (PDF). Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 80 (2): 263–266. doi:10.1093/aesa/80.2.263 . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  20. ↑ "Texas Imported Fire Ant Research and Management Project". fireant.tamu.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-13.
  21. ↑ Fox, Eduardo Gonçalves Paterson; Pianaro, Adriana; Solis, Daniel Russ; Delabie, Jacques Hubert Charles; Vairo, Bruno Cunha; Machado, Ednildo de Alcântara; Bueno, Odair Correa (2012). "Intraspecific and Intracolonial Variation in the Profile of Venom Alkaloids and Cuticular Hydrocarbons of the Fire Ant Solenopsis saevissima Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)". Psyche: A Journal of Entomology. 2012: 1–10. doi: 10.1155/2012/398061 . hdl: 11449/73386 . ISSN   0033-2615.
  22. ↑ Briano, Juan A.; Calcaterra, Luis A.; Wojcik, D.P.; Williams, D.F.; Banks, W.A.; Patterson, R.S. (1997). "Abundance of the Parasitic Ant Solenopsis daguerrei (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in South America, a Potential Candidate for the Biological Control of the Red Imported Fire Ant in the United States". Environmental Entomology. 26 (5): 1143–1148. doi:10.1093/ee/26.5.1143 . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  23. ↑ Ascunce, M. S.; Yang, C.-C.; Oakey, J.; Calcaterra, L.; Wu, W.-J.; Shih, C.-J.; Goudet, J.; Ross, K. G.; Shoemaker, D. (24 February 2011). "Global Invasion History of the Fire Ant Solenopsis invicta". Science. 331 (6020): 1066–1068. Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1066A. doi:10.1126/science.1198734. PMID   21350177. S2CID   28149214.
  24. ↑ Murphy, Damien (13 December 2014). "Red fire ants will make thongs a thing of the past". Sydney Morning Herald . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  25. ↑ "'Aggressive' red ants found at Sydney port". The Australian. Australian Associated Press. 8 December 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  26. ↑ Wetterer, James K. (2013). "Exotic spread of Solenopsis invicta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) beyond North America". Sociobiology . 60: 53–63. doi: 10.13102/sociobiology.v60i1.50-55 .
  27. ↑ McDonald, Maggie (February 2006). "Reds Under Your Feet (interview with Robert Vander Meer)". New Scientist . 189 (2538): 50.
  28. ↑ Solley, GO; Vanderwoude, C; Knight, GK (3 June 2002). "Anaphylaxis due to Red Imported Fire Ant sting". The Medical Journal of Australia. 176 (11): 521–3. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04548.x. PMID   12064982. S2CID   33650493 . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  29. ↑ Oi, David H. (25 June 2008). "Public health significance of Urban Pests" (PDF). World Health Organization Technical Report. Pharaoh ants and fire ants. p. 175. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  30. ↑ "Service Unavailable" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-24. Retrieved 2017-06-20.
  31. ↑ Condon, Matthew (27 July 2013). "Queensland launched a war against the fire ant invasion, but 12 years later, they're still on the march". The Courier Mail. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  32. ↑ McCarthy, John; Williams, Brian (25 July 2013). "Mayors warn fire ants are dominating in south east Queensland as infestations double". The Courier Mail. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  33. ↑ Bryner, Jeanna (26 January 2009). "Lizards' Dance Avoids Deadly Ants". Live Science. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  34. 1 2 3 4 Hoffmann, Benjamin D; Ducarme, Frédéric; Bradford, DanaKai; Martinez, Santiago (2023). "Spread of stinging ants to oceanic islands, and the need to raise awareness of prevention and treatment of ant stings". Emergency Medicine Australasia. 35 (4): 560–563. doi: 10.1111/1742-6723.14165 . PMID   36596650. S2CID   255469772.
  35. 1 2 Fox, Eduardo Gonçalves Paterson (2014), "Venom Toxins of Fire Ants", Venom Genomics and Proteomics, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 1–16, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6649-5_38-1, ISBN   9789400766495 , retrieved 2018-12-07
  36. ↑ dos Santos Pinto, José R. A.; Fox, Eduardo G. P.; Saidemberg, Daniel M.; Santos, Lucilene D.; da Silva Menegasso, Anally R.; Costa-Manso, Eliúde; Machado, Ednildo A.; Bueno, Odair C.; Palma, Mario S. (2012-09-07). "Proteomic View of the Venom from the Fire Ant Solenopsis invicta Buren". Journal of Proteome Research. 11 (9): 4643–4653. doi:10.1021/pr300451g. ISSN   1535-3893. PMID   22881118.
  37. ↑ deShazo RD, Butcher BT, Banks WA (1990). "Reactions to the stings of the imported fire ant". New England Journal of Medicine. 323 (7): 462–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199008163230707. PMID   2197555.
  38. 1 2 Diaz, Bruno L.; Machado, Ednildo A.; Atella, Georgia C.; Araujo, Maria F. C.; Araujo, Almair Ferreira de; Poublan, Luiz E.; Gama, Diogo; Monteiro, Ana Paula; Fox, Eduardo G. P. (2018-09-26). "The allergic response mediated by fire ant venom proteins". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 14427. Bibcode:2018NatSR...814427Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-32327-z. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6158280 . PMID   30258210.
  39. ↑ Lee, Jason; Betschel, Stephen (2013). "A case of the first documented fire ant anaphylaxis in Canada". Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology. 9 (1): 25. doi: 10.1186/1710-1492-9-25 . PMC   3711928 . PMID   23837799.
  40. ↑ Javors, M.A.; Zhou, W.; Maas, J.W.; Han, S.; Keenan, R.W. (1993-01-01). "Effects of fire ant venom alkaloids on platelet and neutrophil function". Life Sciences. 53 (14): 1105–1112. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(93)90546-F. ISSN   0024-3205. PMID   8396703.
  41. ↑ Talcott, Patricia A.; Peterson, Michael E. (2013). Small animal toxicology (3rd ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Elsevier. pp. 584–585. ISBN   978-1455707171 . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  42. ↑ "Fire Ant Bites". American Osteopathic College of Dermatology. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  43. ↑ "Insects and Scorpions". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 22 October 2008. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
  44. ↑ Prahlow, JA; Barnard, JJ (June 1998). "Fatal anaphylaxis due to fire ant stings". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 19 (2): 137–42. doi:10.1097/00000433-199806000-00007. PMID   9662108. S2CID   39162329.
  45. ↑ Ehrenberg, Rachel (18 September 2009). "Venom attracts decapitating flies". Science News . Retrieved 30 December 2014.
  46. ↑ Porter, Sanford D.; Graham, L. C. “Fudd”; Johnson, Seth J.; Thead, Larry G.; Briano, Juan A. (June 2011). "The Large Decapitating Fly (Diptera: Phoridae): Successfully Established on Fire Ant Populations in Alabama". Florida Entomologist. 94 (2): 208–213. doi: 10.1653/024.094.0213 .
  47. 1 2 Ellison, DM; Gotelli, NJ (2009). "Energetics and the evolution of carnivorous plants—Darwin's 'Most Wonderful plants in the world'". Journal of Experimental Botany. 60 (1): 19–42. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ern179 . PMID   19213724.
  48. ↑ Greenberg, Les; Kabashima, John N.; Allison, Clinton J.; Rust, Michael K.; Klotz, John H.; Hurvois, Jean-Pierre; Paine, Timothy D. (2008-11-01). "Lethality of Red Imported Fire Ant Venom to Argentine Ants and Other Ant Species". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 101 (6): 1162–1168. doi:10.1603/0013-8746-101.6.1162. ISSN   0013-8746. S2CID   83922482.
  49. ↑ Siebeneicher, Stacy R.; Bradleigh^Vinson, S.; Kenerley, Charles M. (1992-05-01). "Infection of the red imported fire ant by Beauveria bassiana through various routes of exposure". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 59 (3): 280–285. doi:10.1016/0022-2011(92)90133-O. ISSN   0022-2011.
  50. ↑ Angelone, Steven; Bidochka, Michael J. (2018-07-01). "Diversity and abundance of entomopathogenic fungi at ant colonies". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 156: 73–76. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2018.07.009. ISSN   0022-2011. PMID   30017951. S2CID   51677575.
  51. ↑ Qiu, Hua-Long; Fox, Eduardo G. P.; Qin, Chang-Sheng; Zhao, Dan-Yang; Yang, Hua; Xu, Jin-Zhu (2019-07-01). "Microcapsuled entomopathogenic fungus against fire ants, Solenopsis invicta". Biological Control. 134: 141–149. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2019.03.018. ISSN   1049-9644. S2CID   132021733.
  52. ↑ Pitts, James P.; Camacho, Gabriela P.; Gotzek, Dietrich; Mchugh, Joseph V.; Ross, Kenneth G. (April 2018). "Revision of the Fire Ants of the Solenopsis saevissima Species-Group (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 120 (2): 308–411. doi:10.4289/0013-8797.120.2.308. ISSN   0013-8797. S2CID   91162352.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.