Moth

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Moths
Attacus atlas (15050883139).jpg
Atlas moth, Attacus atlas
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
(unranked): Heterocera

Moths are a group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies. [1] They were previously classified as suborder Heterocera, but the group is paraphyletic with respect to butterflies (suborder Rhopalocera) and neither subordinate taxon is used in modern classifications. Moths make up the vast majority of the order. There are approximately 160,000 species of moth, [2] many of which have yet to be described. Most species of moth are nocturnal, although there are also crepuscular and diurnal species.

Contents

Differences between butterflies and moths

Basic moth identification features Basic moth identification features.jpg
Basic moth identification features

While the butterflies form a monophyletic group, the moths, comprising the rest of the Lepidoptera, do not. Many attempts have been made to group the superfamilies of the Lepidoptera into natural groups, most of which fail because one of the two groups is not monophyletic: Microlepidoptera and Macrolepidoptera, Heterocera and Rhopalocera, Jugatae and Frenatae, Monotrysia, and Ditrysia. [3]

Although the rules for distinguishing moths from butterflies are not well established, one very good guiding principle is that butterflies have thin antennae and (with the exception of the family Hedylidae) have small balls or clubs at the end of their antennae. Moth antennae are usually feathery with no ball on the end. The divisions are named by this principle: "club-antennae" (Rhopalocera) or "varied-antennae" (Heterocera). Lepidoptera first evolved during the Carboniferous period, but only evolved their characteristic proboscis alongside the rise of angiosperms in the Cretaceous period. [4]

Etymology

The modern English word moth comes from Old English moððe (cf. Northumbrian mohðe) from Common Germanic (compare Old Norse motti, Dutch mot, and German Motte all meaning 'moth'). Its origins are possibly related to the Old English maða meaning 'maggot' or from the root of midge which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate the larva, usually in reference to devouring clothes.

Caterpillar

Poplar hawk-moth caterpillar (Laothoe populi) Poplar hawk-moth.jpg
Poplar hawk-moth caterpillar (Laothoe populi)

Moth larvae, or caterpillars, make cocoons from which they emerge as fully grown moths with wings. Some moth caterpillars dig holes in the ground, where they live until they are ready to turn into adult moths. [5]

History

Moths evolved long before butterflies; moth fossils have been found that may be 190 million years old. Both types of Lepidoptera are thought to have co-evolved with flowering plants, mainly because most modern species, both as adults and larvae, feed on flowering plants. One of the earliest known species that is thought to be an ancestor of moths is Archaeolepis mane. Its fossil fragments show scaled wings that are similar to caddisflies in their veining. [6]

Economics

Significance to humans

An adult male pine processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). This species is a serious forest pest when in its larval state. Notice the bristle springing from the underside of the hindwing (frenulum) and running forward to be held in a small catch of the forewing, whose function is to link the wings together. Moth September 2008-3.jpg
An adult male pine processionary moth ( Thaumetopoea pityocampa ). This species is a serious forest pest when in its larval state. Notice the bristle springing from the underside of the hindwing (frenulum) and running forward to be held in a small catch of the forewing, whose function is to link the wings together.

Some moths, particularly their caterpillars, can be major agricultural pests in many parts of the world. Examples include corn borers and bollworms. [7] The caterpillar of the spongy moth (Lymantria dispar) causes severe damage to forests in the northeastern United States, where it is an invasive species. In temperate climates, the codling moth causes extensive damage, especially to fruit farms. In tropical and subtropical climates, the diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella ) is perhaps the most serious pest of brassicaceous crops. Also in sub-Saharan Africa, the African sugarcane borer is a major pest of sugarcane, maize, and sorghum. [8]

Several moths in the family Tineidae are commonly regarded as pests because their larvae eat fabric such as clothes and blankets made from natural proteinaceous fibers such as wool or silk. [9] They are less likely to eat mixed materials containing some artificial fibers. There are some reports that they may be repelled by the scent of wood from juniper and cedar, by lavender, or by other natural oils; however, many consider this unlikely to prevent infestation. Naphthalene (the chemical used in mothballs) is considered more effective, but there are concerns over its effects on human health.

Moth larvae may be killed by freezing the items which they infest for several days at a temperature below −8 °C (18 °F). [10]

While moths are notorious for eating clothing, most species do not, and some moth adults do not even eat at all. Some, like the Luna, Polyphemus, Atlas, Promethea, cecropia, and other large moths do not have mouth parts. This is possible because they live off the food stores from when they were a caterpillar, and only live a short time as an adult (roughly a week for some species). [11] Many species of adult moths do however eat: for instance, many will drink nectar. [9]

Some moths are farmed for their economic value. The most notable of these is the silkworm, the larva of the domesticated moth Bombyx mori . It is farmed for the silk with which it builds its cocoon. As of 2002, the silk industry produces more than 130 million kilograms of raw silk, worth about 250 million U.S. dollars, each year. [12] [13] [14]

Not all silk is produced by Bombyx mori. There are several species of Saturniidae that also are farmed for their silk, such as the ailanthus moth ( Samia cynthia group of species), the Chinese oak silkmoth ( Antheraea pernyi ), the Assam silkmoth ( Antheraea assamensis ), and the Japanese silk moth ( Antheraea yamamai ).

The larvae of many species are used as food, particularly in Africa, where they are an important source of nutrition. The mopane worm, the caterpillar of Gonimbrasia belina , from the family Saturniidae, is a significant food resource in southern Africa. Another saturniid used as food is the cavorting emperor ( Usta terpsichore ). In one country alone, Congo, more than 30 species of moth larvae are harvested. Some are sold not only in the local village markets, but are shipped by the ton from one country to another. [15]

Predators and parasites

Tobacco hornworm parasitized by braconid wasps Tomato Hornworm Parasitized by Braconid Wasp.jpg
Tobacco hornworm parasitized by braconid wasps

Nocturnal insectivores often feed on moths; these include some bats, some species of owls and other species of birds. Moths also are eaten by some species of lizards, amphibians, cats, dogs, rodents, and some bears. Moth larvae are vulnerable to being parasitized by Ichneumonidae.

Baculoviruses are parasite double-stranded DNA insect viruses that are used mostly as biological control agents. They are members of the Baculoviridae, a family that is restricted to insects. Most baculovirus isolates have been obtained from insects, in particular from Lepidoptera.

There is evidence that ultrasound in the range emitted by bats causes flying moths to make evasive maneuvers. Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that causes it to drop a few centimeters or inches in its flight to evade attack, [16] and tiger moths can emit clicks to foil bats' echolocation. [17] [18]

The fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis infects the larvae of many different species of moths. [19]

Ecological importance

Moths, like butterflies, bees and other more popularly recognized pollinating insects, serve an essential role as pollinators for many flowering plants, including species that bees do not visit. Nocturnal moths fly from flower to flower to feed on nectar during the night much as their diurnal relatives do during the day. A study conducted in the UK found moths dusted with pollen from 47 different plant species, including seven species largely ignored by bees. [20] Some studies indicate that certain species of moths, such as those belonging to the families Erebidae and Sphingidae, may be the key pollinators for some flowering plants in the Himalayan ecosystem. [21] [22] The roles of moths as pollinators have been studied less frequently than those of diurnal pollinators, but recent studies have established that moths are important, but often overlooked, nocturnal pollinators of a wide range of plants. [23] [24] [25] [26] Some researchers say it is likely that many plants thought to be dependent on bees for pollination also rely on moths, which have historically been less observed because they pollinate mainly at night. [27]

Attraction to light

Assorted moths in the University of Texas Insect Collection Assorted Moths (Lepidoptera) in the University of Texas Insect Collection (22281153644) (cropped).jpg
Assorted moths in the University of Texas Insect Collection

Moths frequently appear to circle artificial lights, although the reason for this behavior (positive phototaxis) is currently unknown. One hypothesis is called celestial or transverse orientation. By maintaining a constant angular relationship to a bright celestial light, such as the moon, they can fly in a straight line. Celestial objects are so far away that, even after travelling great distances, the change in angle between the moth and the light source is negligible; further, the moon will always be in the upper part of the visual field, or on the horizon. When a moth encounters a much closer artificial light and uses it for navigation, the angle changes noticeably after only a short distance, in addition to being often below the horizon. The moth instinctively attempts to correct by turning toward the light, thereby causing airborne moths to come plummeting downward, and resulting in a spiral flight path that gets closer and closer to the light source. [28]

Studies have found that light pollution caused by increasing use of artificial lights has either led to a severe decline in moth population in some parts of the world [29] [30] [31] or has severely disrupted nocturnal pollination. [32] [33]

Noteworthy moths

Moths of economic significance

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caterpillar</span> Larva of a butterfly or moth

Caterpillars are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Butterfly</span> Group of insects in the order Lepidoptera

Butterflies are winged insects from the lepidopteran suborder Rhopalocera, characterized by large, often brightly coloured wings that often fold together when at rest, and a conspicuous, fluttering flight. The group comprises the superfamilies Hedyloidea and Papilionoidea. The oldest butterfly fossils have been dated to the Paleocene, about 56 million years ago, though they may have originated earlier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lepidoptera</span> Order of insects including moths and butterflies

Lepidoptera or lepidopterans is an order of winged insects that includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organisms, making it the second largest insect order with 126 families and 46 superfamilies. and one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world.

A common classification of the Lepidoptera involves their differentiation into butterflies and moths. Butterflies are a natural monophyletic group, often given the suborder Rhopalocera, which includes Papilionoidea, Hesperiidae (skippers), and Hedylidae. In this taxonomic scheme, moths belong to the suborder Heterocera. Other taxonomic schemes have been proposed, the most common putting the butterflies into the suborder Ditrysia and then the "superfamily" Papilionoidea and ignoring a classification for moths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sphingidae</span> Family of insects

The Sphingidae are a family of moths commonly called sphinx moths, also colloquially known as hawk moths, with many of their caterpillars known as "hornworms"; it includes about 1,450 species. It is best represented in the tropics, but species are found in every region. They are moderate to large in size and are distinguished among moths for their agile and sustained flying ability, similar enough to that of hummingbirds as to be reliably mistaken for them. Their narrow wings and streamlined abdomens are adaptations for rapid flight. The family was named by French zoologist Pierre André Latreille in 1802.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pupa</span> Life stage of some insects undergoing transformation

A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their life cycle, the stages thereof being egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The processes of entering and completing the pupal stage are controlled by the insect's hormones, especially juvenile hormone, prothoracicotropic hormone, and ecdysone. The act of becoming a pupa is called pupation, and the act of emerging from the pupal case is called eclosion or emergence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Noctuidae</span> Type of moths commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms

The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the other families of the Noctuoidea. It was considered the largest family in Lepidoptera for a long time, but after regrouping Lymantriinae, Catocalinae and Calpinae within the family Erebidae, the latter holds this title now. Currently, Noctuidae is the second largest family in Noctuoidea, with about 1,089 genera and 11,772 species. This classification is still contingent, as more changes continue to appear between Noctuidae and Erebidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luna moth</span> Species of insect

The luna moth, also called the American moon moth, is a Nearctic moth in the family Saturniidae, subfamily Saturniinae, a group commonly named the giant silk moths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tachinidae</span> Family of insects

The Tachinidae are a large and variable family of true flies within the insect order Diptera, with more than 8,200 known species and many more to be discovered. Over 1,300 species have been described in North America alone. Insects in this family commonly are called tachinid flies or simply tachinids. As far as is known, they all are protelean parasitoids, or occasionally parasites, of arthropods, usually other insects. The family is known from many habitats in all zoogeographical regions and is especially diverse in South America.

<i>Helicoverpa zea</i> Species of moth

Helicoverpa zea, commonly known as the corn earworm, is a species in the family Noctuidae. The larva of the moth Helicoverpa zea is a major agricultural pest. Since it is polyphagous during the larval stage, the species has been given many different common names, including the cotton bollworm and the tomato fruitworm. It also consumes a wide variety of other crops.

<i>Asclepias</i> Genus of flowering plants

Asclepias is a genus of herbaceous, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species are toxic to humans and many other species, primarily due to the presence of cardenolides. However, as with many such plants, some species feed upon them or from them. The most notable of them is the monarch butterfly, which uses and requires certain milkweeds as host plants for their larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctiinae</span> Subfamily of moths

The Arctiinae are a large and diverse subfamily of moths with around 11,000 species found all over the world, including 6,000 neotropical species. This subfamily includes the groups commonly known as tiger moths, which usually have bright colours, footmen, which are usually much drabber, lichen moths, and wasp moths. Many species have "hairy" caterpillars that are popularly known as woolly bears or woolly worms. The scientific name Arctiinae refers to this hairiness. Some species within the Arctiinae have the word "tussock"' in their common names because they have been misidentified as members of the Lymantriinae subfamily based on the characteristics of the larvae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saturniidae</span> Family of moths

Saturniidae, members of which are commonly named the saturniids, is a family of Lepidoptera with an estimated 2,300 described species. The family contains some of the largest species of moths in the world. Notable members include the emperor moths, royal moths, and giant silk moths.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cabbage moth</span> Species of moth

The cabbage moth is primarily known as a pest that is responsible for severe crop damage of a wide variety of plant species. The common name, cabbage moth, is a misnomer as the species feeds on many fruits, vegetables, and crops in the genus Brassica. Other notable host plants include tobacco, sunflower, and tomato, making this pest species particularly economically damaging.

<i>Manduca quinquemaculata</i> Species of moth

Manduca quinquemaculata, the five-spotted hawkmoth, is a brown and gray hawk moth of the family Sphingidae. The caterpillar, often referred to as the tomato hornworm, can be a major pest in gardens; they get their name from a dark projection on their posterior end and their use of tomatoes as host plants. Tomato hornworms are closely related to the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta. This confusion arises because caterpillars of both species have similar morphologies and feed on the foliage of various plants from the family Solanaceae, so either species can be found on tobacco or tomato leaves. Because of this, the plant on which the caterpillar is found does not indicate its species.

<i>Antheraea polyphemus</i> Species of moth

Antheraea polyphemus, the Polyphemus moth, is a North American member of the family Saturniidae, the giant silk moths. It is a tan-colored moth, with an average wingspan of 15 cm (6 in). The most notable feature of the moth is its large, purplish eyespots on its two hindwings. The eyespots give it its name – from the Greek myth of the cyclops Polyphemus. The species was first described by Pieter Cramer in 1776. The species is widespread in continental North America, with local populations found throughout subarctic Canada and the United States. The caterpillar can eat 86,000 times its weight at emergence in a little less than two months. Polyphemus moths are considered to be very polyphagous, meaning they eat from a wide variety of plants.

<i>Epargyreus clarus</i> Species of butterfly

Epargyreus clarus, the silver-spotted skipper, is a butterfly of the family Hesperiidae. It is claimed to be the most recognized skipper in North America. E. clarus occurs in fields, gardens, and at forest edges and ranges from southern Canada throughout most of the United States to northern Mexico, but is absent in the Great Basin and western Texas.

<i>Diphthera festiva</i> Species of moth

Diphthera festiva, the hieroglyphic moth, is a species of moth in the family Nolidae and is the only moth in its subfamily Diphtherinae. It is found in the tropical and subtropical areas of South America, Central America, North America, and the Caribbean. In North America, the species has a southeastern distribution from South Carolina west to Texas along the Gulf Coast. Strays have been recorded as far north as Michigan and Missouri. The wingspan is 37–48 mm (1.5–1.9 in). This species is occasionally considered a pest on soybeans. It was described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insect</span> Class of arthropods

Insects are hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and a pair of antennae. Insects are the most diverse group of animals, with more than a million described species; they represent more than half of all animal species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">External morphology of Lepidoptera</span> External features of butterflies and moths

The external morphology of Lepidoptera is the physiological structure of the bodies of insects belonging to the order Lepidoptera, also known as butterflies and moths. Lepidoptera are distinguished from other orders by the presence of scales on the external parts of the body and appendages, especially the wings. Butterflies and moths vary in size from microlepidoptera only a few millimetres long, to a wingspan of many inches such as the Atlas moth. Comprising over 160,000 described species, the Lepidoptera possess variations of the basic body structure which has evolved to gain advantages in adaptation and distribution.

References

  1. ↑ Heppner, J.B. (2008). "Moths (Lepidoptera: Heterocera)". In Capinera, J.L. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Entomology. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 2491–2494. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_4705. ISBN   978-1-4020-6242-1.
  2. ↑ "Moths". Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  3. ↑ Scoble, MJ 1995. The Lepidoptera: Form, function and diversity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 404 p.
  4. ↑ Kawahara, Akito Y.; Plotkin, David; Espeland, Marianne; Meusemann, Karen; Toussaint, Emmanuel F. A.; Donath, Alexander; Gimnich, France; Frandsen, Paul B.; Zwick, Andreas; Reis, Mario dos; Barber, Jesse R. (5 November 2019). "Phylogenomics reveals the evolutionary timing and pattern of butterflies and moths". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (45): 22657–22663. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11622657K. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1907847116 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   6842621 . PMID   31636187.
  5. ↑ Darby, Gene (1958). What is a Butterfly. Chicago: Benefic Press. p. 41.
  6. ↑ Hoyt, Cathryn. "Evolution of Moths and Butterflies". Chihuahuan Desert Nature Center. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Studying the evolution of butterflies and moths is challenging, since fossils are so rare. But the few Lepidopteran fossils that exist, captured in amber or compressed in fine-grained rocks, show an astonishing amount of detail. The earliest Lepidopteran fossils appear in rocks that are about 190 million years old. These tiny fragments of scaled wings and bodies clearly indicate that moths evolved before butterflies.
  7. ↑ Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge; Caswell, Margriet (April 2006). "The First Decade of Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States" (PDF). ers.usda.gov. USDA. Economic Information Bulletin Number 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2010.
  8. ↑ Conlong, D.E. (February 1994). "A review and perspectives for the biological control of the African sugarcane stalkborer Eldana saccharina Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 48 (1): 9–17. Bibcode:1994AgEE...48....9C. doi:10.1016/0167-8809(94)90070-1.
  9. 1 2 Scott, Thomas (1995). Concise Encyclopedia Biology Archived 12 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine . Walter de Gruyter. ISBN   3-11-010661-2.
  10. ↑ Choe, D.-H. (21 June 2016). "How to Manage Pests | Pests of Homes, Structures, People, and Pets | Clothes Moths". ipm.ucdavis.edu. University of California, Davis. Archived from the original on 25 June 2007.
  11. ↑ Konkel, Lindsey (28 July 2012). "7 Things You Don't Know About Moths, But Should". Live Science. Archived from the original on 20 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
  12. ↑ "Table 74. Raw silk: production (including waste)". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 18 March 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2008. Table lists worldwide raw silk production 132,400 metric tonnes in 2002
  13. ↑ "Silk Exchanges of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh". Central Silk Board of India. Archived from the original on 7 March 2007. gives silk prices in rupees. Exchange rate is about 50 RS to dollar.
  14. ↑ "Silk Worm Farming". Vegan Society. Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2008. World Raw Silk Production in 1996 is listed as 83,670 metric tonnes
  15. ↑ "Some Edible Species". Food-Insects.com. Archived from the original on 7 November 2014.
  16. ↑ Jones, G; D A Waters (2000). "Moth hearing in response to bat echolocation calls manipulated independently in time and frequency". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 267 (1453): 1627–32. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1188. PMC   1690724 . PMID   11467425.
  17. ↑ Kaplan, Matt (17 July 2009). "Moths Jam Bat Sonar, Throw the Predators Off Course". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 22 August 2009.
  18. ↑ "Some Moths Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar". NPR (video). 17 July 2009. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017.
  19. ↑ Baral, B (Feb 2017). "Entomopathogenicity and biological attributes of Himalayan treasured fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Yarsagumba)". Journal of Fungi. 3 (1): 4. doi: 10.3390/jof3010004 . PMC   5715966 . PMID   29371523.
  20. ↑ Fox, Alex. "Moths Work the Pollination Night Shift, Visiting Some Flowers Bees Skip". smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
  21. ↑ "National Mission on Himalayan Studies". nmhs.org.in. Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
  22. ↑ Singh, Shiv Sahay (28 October 2018). "Moths are key to pollination in Himalayan ecosystem". The Hindu. ISSN   0971-751X. Archived from the original on 28 October 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
  23. ↑ Walton, Richard E.; Sayer, Carl D.; Bennion, Helen; Axmacher, Jan C. (13 May 2020). "Nocturnal pollinators strongly contribute to pollen transport of wild flowers in an agricultural landscape". Biology Letters. The Royal Society. 16 (5). doi:10.1098/rsbl.2019.0877. PMC   7280044 . PMID   32396782.
  24. ↑ Matt McGrath (13 May 2020). "Nature crisis: Moths have 'secret role' as crucial pollinators". BBC. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  25. ↑ Macgregor, Callum J.; Pocock, Michael J. O.; Fox, Richard; Evans, Darren M. (2015). "Pollination by nocturnal Lepidoptera, and the effects of light pollution: a review". Ecological Entomology. 40 (3): 187–198. Bibcode:2015EcoEn..40..187M. doi:10.1111/een.12174. ISSN   1365-2311. PMC   4405039 . PMID   25914438.
  26. ↑ Hahn, Melanie; Brühl, Carsten A. (25 January 2016). "The secret pollinators: an overview of moth pollination with a focus on Europe and North America". Arthropod-Plant Interactions. 10 (1): 21–28. Bibcode:2016APInt..10...21H. doi:10.1007/s11829-016-9414-3. ISSN   1872-8855. S2CID   18514093. Archived from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  27. ↑ Kuta, Sarah. "Moths are the Unsung Heroes of Pollination". smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
  28. ↑ "Why Are Moths Attracted to Flame?". npr.org . 18 August 2007. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
  29. ↑ van Langevelde, Frank; Braamburg-Annegarn, Marijke; Huigens, Martinus E.; Groendijk, Rob; Poitevin, Olivier; van Deijk, Jurriën R.; Ellis, Willem N.; van Grunsven, Roy H. A.; de Vos, Rob (4 January 2018). "Declines in moth populations stress the need for conserving dark nights". Global Change Biology. 24 (3): 925–932. Bibcode:2018GCBio..24..925V. doi:10.1111/gcb.14008. ISSN   1354-1013. PMID   29215778. S2CID   205145880.
  30. ↑ "The State Of Britain's Moths". butterfly-conservation.org. Archived from the original on 4 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
  31. ↑ Boyes, Douglas H.; Evans, Darren M.; Fox, Richard; Parsons, Mark S.; Pocock, Michael J. O. (August 2021). "Street lighting has detrimental impacts on local insect populations". Science Advances. 7 (35): eabi8322. Bibcode:2021SciA....7.8322B. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abi8322. PMC   8386932 . PMID   34433571.
  32. ↑ Macgregor, Callum J.; Evans, Darren M.; Fox, Richard; Pocock, Michael J. O. (12 July 2016). "The dark side of street lighting: impacts on moths and evidence for the disruption of nocturnal pollen transport". Global Change Biology. 23 (2): 697–707. doi: 10.1111/gcb.13371 . ISSN   1354-1013. PMID   27251575.
  33. ↑ Knop, Eva; Zoller, Leana; Ryser, Remo; Gerpe, Christopher; Hörler, Maurin; Fontaine, Colin (2 August 2017). "Artificial light at night as a new threat to pollination" (PDF). Nature. 548 (7666): 206–209. Bibcode:2017Natur.548..206K. doi:10.1038/nature23288. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   28783730. S2CID   4466564.
  34. ↑ Tait, Malcolm (2006). Animal Tragic: Popular Misconceptions of Wildlife Through the Centuries. Think Books. p. 38. ISBN   978-1-84525-015-7. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  35. ↑ Brundage, Adrienne (23 March 2009), Other Arthropods of Forensic Importance, Texas A&M University, Texas A&M University Forensic Entomology Lecture

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