Sericulture

Last updated

SERICULTURE - Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, the caterpillar of the domestic silkmoth is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm. This species of silkmoth is no longer found in the wild as they have been modified through selective breeding, rendering most flightless and without defense against predators. Silk is believed to have first been produced in China as early as the Neolithic period. Sericulture has become an important cottage industry in countries such as Brazil, China, France, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Russia, and Thailand. Today, China and India are the two main producers, with more than 60% of the world's annual production.

Contents

Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk (cropped).jpg
Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk by Zhang Xuan (713–755), reproduced by Emperor Huizong in the 12th century

History

According to Confucian text, the discovery of silk production dates to about 2700 BCE, although archaeological records point to silk cultivation as early as the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BCE). [1] In 1977, a piece of ceramic created 5400–5500 years ago and designed to look like a silkworm was discovered in Nancun, Hebei, providing the earliest known evidence of sericulture. [2] Also, by careful analysis of archaeological silk fibre found on Indus Civilization sites dating back to 2450–2000 BCE, it is believed that silk was being used over a wide region of South Asia. [3] [4] By about the first half of the 1st century CE, it had reached ancient Khotan, [5] by a series of interactions along the Silk Road. By 140 CE, the practice had been established in India. [6] In the 6th century CE, the smuggling of silkworm eggs into the Byzantine Empire led to its establishment in the Mediterranean, remaining a monopoly in the Byzantine Empire for centuries (Byzantine silk). In 1147, during the Second Crusade, Roger II of Sicily (1095–1154) attacked Corinth and Thebes, two important centres of Byzantine silk production, capturing the weavers and their equipment and establishing his own silkworks in Palermo and Calabria, [7] eventually spreading the industry to Western Europe.

Production

The silkworms are fed with mulberry leaves, and after the fourth moult, they climb a twig placed near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous filament comprising fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each worm, and a gum called sericin, which cements the filaments. The sericin is removed by placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for reeling. This is known as the degumming process. [8] The immersion in hot water also kills the silkmoth pupa.

Single filaments are combined to form thread, in a process called "throwing", which is drawn under tension through several guides and wound onto reels. This process of throwing produces various yarns depending on the amount and direction of the twisting. [9] The threads may be plied to form yarn (short staple lengths are spun; see silk noil). After drying, the raw silk is packed according to quality.

Sustainable silk

Peace silk

The most popular substitute for traditional silk is peace silk, also known as ahimsa silk. The primary factor that makes this form of silk more ethical is that moths are permitted to emerge from their cocoons and fly away prior to boiling. It denotes that no pupa is ever cooked alive during manufacture. However, domesticated silkworms used to make silk have undergone thousands of years of selective breeding and are not "manufactured" to emerge from their cocoons. They are unable to defend themselves against predators since they cannot fly or see clearly. They typically die soon after emerging from their cocoons as a result. [10]

Wild silk

The cocoons of Tussar silkworms, which are found in open woodlands, are used to produce wild silk, also known as Tussar silk. Compared to conventional silk, their cocoons are typically picked after the moths have emerged, making it a more ethical option. Because wild silkworms consume a variety of plants, their fabric is less uniform but more robust. The fabric is made with fewer chemicals[ vague ] as well. The pupae are still inside the cocoons when they are harvested by certain enterprises that employ "wild silk", though. [11]

Stages of production

The stages of production are as follows:

  1. The female silkmoth lays 300 to 500 eggs.
  2. The silkmoth eggs hatch to form larvae or caterpillars, known as silkworms.
  3. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves.
  4. Having grown and moulted several times, the silkworm extrudes a silk fibre and forms a net to hold itself.
  5. It swings itself from side to side in a figure '8', distributing the saliva that will form silk.
  6. The silk solidifies when it contacts the air.
  7. The silkworm spins approximately one mile of filament and completely encloses itself in a cocoon in about two or three days. The amount of usable quality silk in each cocoon is small. As a result, about 2,500 silkworms are required to produce a pound of raw silk. [12]
  8. The intact cocoons are boiled, killing the silkworm pupa.
  9. The silk is obtained by brushing the undamaged cocoon to find the outside end of the filament.
  10. The silk filaments are then wound on a reel. One cocoon contains approximately 1,000 yards (910 m) of silk filament. The silk at this stage is known as raw silk. One thread comprises up to 48 individual silk filaments.

Mahatma Gandhi was critical of silk production based on the Ahimsa philosophy "not to hurt any living thing". He also promoted "Ahimsa silk", made without boiling the pupa to procure the silk and wild silk made from the cocoons of wild and semiwild silkmoths. [13] [14] [ failed verification ] The Human League also criticised sericulture in their early single "Being Boiled". The organisation PETA has also campaigned against silk. [15]

Pupae as food

Beondegi Beondegi.jpg
Beondegi

The conventional method of silk production results in ~8 kg of wet silkworm pupae and ~2 kg of dry pupae per kilogram of raw silk. [16] This byproduct has historically been consumed by people in silk-producing areas. [16] [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silk</span> Fine, lustrous, natural fiber produced by various arthropods

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fibre, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.

<i>Bombyx mori</i> Moth mainly used in the production of silk

Bombyx mori, commonly known as the domestic silk moth, is a moth species belonging to the family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of Bombyx mandarina, the wild silk moth. Silkworms are the larvae of silk moths. The silkworm is of particular economic value, being a primary producer of silk. The silkworm's preferred food are the leaves of white mulberry, though they may eat other species of mulberry, and even leaves of other plants like the osage orange. Domestic silk moths are entirely dependent on humans for reproduction, as a result of millennia of selective breeding. Wild silk moths, which are other species of Bombyx, are not as commercially viable in the production of silk.

A silk comforter (絲綿被) is a bed covering, most often used as a duvet, and also commonly referred to as a silk duvet, silk quilt, or silk blanket. Originally used and made in China, since the late 20th century, silk comforters have become more common in Western market areas. Their increasing popularity stems from a combination of factors, including their thermal properties, their light weight, and their natural hypoallergenic properties. The opening of the Chinese market to the world since the 1990s has also played a significant role in the spread of silk comforters, as China is both the world's biggest silk producer and silk comforter manufacturer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leizu</span>

Leizu, also known as Xi Ling-shi, was a legendary Chinese empress and wife of the Yellow Emperor. According to tradition, she discovered sericulture, and invented the silk loom, in the 27th century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mysore silk</span> Variety of mulberry silk produced in the Indian district of Mysore

Mysore silk is variety of mulberry silk produced in the Indian district of Mysore, Karnataka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tomioka Silk Mill</span> Building in Gunma Prefecture, Japan

Tomioka Silk Mill is Japan's oldest modern model silk reeling factory, established in 1872 by the government to introduce modern machine silk reeling from France and spread its technology in Japan. The factory is designated by the government as a National Historic Site and all its buildings are preserved in very good condition. It is located in the city of Tomioka, Gunma Prefecture, Japan, about 100 km northwest of Tokyo. It is also featured as the 'ni' card in Jomo Karuta playing cards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rajshahi silk</span> Textiles produced in Rajshahi, Bangladesh, from various silk fibres

Rajshahi silk is the name given to the silk products produced in Rajshahi, Bangladesh. It is famous because it is a high quality fabric used for clothing, especially for saris. In 2021, it was given Geographical indication status as a product of Bangladesh.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silk in the Indian subcontinent</span>

In India, about 97% of the raw mulberry silk is produced in the Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Mysore and North Bangalore, the upcoming site of a US$20 million "Silk City", contribute to a majority of silk production. Another emerging silk producer is Tamil Nadu in the place in where mulberry cultivation is concentrated in Salem, Erode and Dharmapuri districts. Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh and Gobichettipalayam, Tamil Nadu were the first locations to have automated silk reeling units.

Assam silk denotes the three major types of indigenous wild silks produced in Assam—golden muga, white pat and warm eri silk. The Assam silk industry, now centered in Sualkuchi, is a labor-intensive industry.

<i>Bombyx mandarina</i> Species of moth

Bombyx mandarina, the wild silk moth, is a species of moth in the family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of Bombyx mori, the domesticated silk moth. The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of a silk moth. Unlike the domesticated relative which is unable to fly or indeed persist outside human care, the wild silk moth is a fairly ordinary lepidopteran. Its main difference from the domesticated taxon is the more slender body with well-developed wings in males, and the dull greyish-brown colour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of silk</span>

The production of silk originated in Neolithic China within the Yangshao culture. Though it would later reach other places in the world, the art of silk production remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened at 114 BC. Even after trade opened, China maintained a virtual monopoly over silk production for another thousand years. The use of silk within China was not confined to clothing alone, and silk was used for a number of applications, such as writing. Within clothing, the color of silk worn also held social importance, and formed an important guide of social class during the Tang dynasty of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thai silk</span> Silk from the cocoons of Thai silkworms

Thai silk is produced from the cocoons of Thai silkworms. Thailand's silkworm farmers cultivate both types of the domesticated silkworms that produce commercial silk: Samia ricini, commonly known as the eri silkworm, which produces matte eri silk, and the Bombyx mori, producer of the better known, glossy mulberry silk. The latter is by far the larger silk producer of the two.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silk industry in China</span>

China is the world's largest and earliest silk producer. The vast majority of Chinese silk originates from the mulberry silkworms. During the larval stage of its life cycle, the insects feed on the leaves of mulberry trees. Non-mulberry silkworm cocoon production in China primarily focuses on wild silk from the Chinese Tussah moth. This moth typically feeds on trees and its larvae spin coarser, flatter, yellower filament than the mulberry silkworms.

Silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be unwindable, and therefore unsuited to the throwing process. Before the introduction of machinery applicable to the spinning of silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk winding, which is now used in producing spun silk fabrics, was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with the exception of that which could be hand-combed and spun by means of the distaff and spinning wheel, a method which is still practised by some of the peasantry in India and other countries in Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wild silk</span> A silk fibre from Asian moth silkworms

Wild silks have been known and used in many countries from early times, although the scale of production is far smaller than that from cultivated silkworms. Silk cocoons and nests often resemble paper or cloth, and their use has arisen independently in many societies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eri silk</span> Silk from the cocoons of Samia ricini silkworms

Eri silk is a type of peace silk produced by the domesticated silkworm Samia ricini. It is primarily produced in the northeastern Indian states of Assam, Nagaland and Meghalaya, but it is also found in Bihar, Odisha, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh on a smaller scale. It was imported to Thailand in 1974.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tussar silk</span> Coarse silk from wild Antheraea silkworms

Tussar silk is produced from larvae of several species of silkworms belonging to the moth genus Antheraea, including A. assamensis, A. paphia, A. pernyi, A. roylei, and A. yamamai. These silkworms live in the wild forests in trees belonging to Terminalia species and Shorea robusta, as well as other food plants such as jamun and oak found in South Asia, eating the leaves of the trees on which they live. Tussar silk is valued for its rich texture and natural, deep-gold colour, and varieties are produced in many countries, including China, India, Japan, and Sri Lanka.

<i>Antheraea pernyi</i> Species of moth

Antheraea pernyi, the Chinese oak tussar moth, Chinese tasar moth, or temperate tussar moth, is a large moth in the family Saturniidae. The species was first described by Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville in 1855. Antheraea roylei is an extremely close relative, and the present species might actually have evolved from ancestral A. roylei by chromosome rearrangement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artisans Angkor</span>

Artisans Angkor is a Cambodian social business established in 1992 with the aim of providing employment opportunities for rural youth while preserving traditional Khmer craftsmanship.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ahimsa silk</span> Type of silk obtained without killing and harming silk worms

Ahimsa silk, also known as peace silk is a method of nonviolent silk breeding and harvesting. Wild silk moths are bred rather than the domestic variety. It allows the completion of the metamorphosis of the silkworm to its moth stage, whereas most silk harvesting requires the silkworms to be killed in their cocoon stage. No animals suffer or die for the silk to be produced, making it a favorable alternative to normal silk for those who object to harming animals.

References

  1. ↑ Barber, E. J. W. (1992). Prehistoric textiles: the development of cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with special reference to the Aegean (reprint, illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 31. ISBN   978-0-691-00224-8.
  2. ↑ "2015-10-29240509.html". Archived from the original on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018. 1977年在石家庄长安区南村镇南杨庄出土的5400–5500年前的陶质蚕蛹，是仿照家蚕蛹烧制的陶器，这是目前发现的人类饲养家蚕的最古老的文物证据。
  3. ↑ Good, I. L.; Kenoyer, J. M.; Meadow, R. H. (June 2009). "New Evidence for Early Silk in the Indus Civilization". Archaeometry. 51 (3): 457–466. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00454.x.
  4. ↑ Vainker, Shelagh (2004). Chinese Silk: A Cultural History. Rutgers University Press. p. 20. ISBN   0813534461.
  5. ↑ Hill, John E. 2003. "Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu." 2nd Draft Edition. Appendix A.
  6. ↑ "History of Sericulture" (PDF). Government of Andhra Pradesh (India) – Department of Sericulture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
  7. ↑ Muthesius, "Silk in the Medieval World", p. 331.
  8. ↑ Bezzina, Neville. "Silk Production Process". Sense of Nature Research. Archived from the original on 29 June 2012.
  9. ↑ "Sericulture | Silk Production." Encyclopædia Britannica, Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/sericulture. Accessed 8 July 2022.
  10. ↑ "Silk and Sustainable Silk". Common Objective. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
  11. ↑ "Silk and Sustainable Silk". Common Objective. Retrieved 27 October 2022.
  12. ↑ "Silk Making: How to Make Silk". TexereSilk.com. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
  13. ↑ Radhakrishnan, S., ed. (1968). Mahatma Gandhi: 100 years. New Delhi: Gandhi Peace Foundation. p. 349. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  14. ↑ Parekh, Dhimant (11 September 2008). "Ahimsa Silk: Silk Saree without killing a single silkworm". The Better India. Vikara Services Pvt Ltd. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  15. ↑ "Down and Silk: Birds and Insects Exploited for Fabric". PETA. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 6 January 2007.
  16. 1 2 Sadat, Abdul; Biswas, Trishanjan; Cardoso, Marlon H; Mondal, Rittick; Ghosh, Ashmita; Dam, Paulami; Nesa, Jannatun; Chakraborty, Joydeep; Bhattacharjya, Debjoy; Franco, Octávio L; Gangopadhyay, Debnirmalya; Mandal, Amit K (2022). "Silkworm pupae as a future food with nutritional and medicinal benefits". Current Opinion in Food Science. 44: 100818. doi:10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100818. S2CID   247312134.
  17. ↑ "Salty Silkworm Pupae Are the One Street Food You Shouldn't Miss in South Korea". Matador Network. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.