Pesticide toxicity to bees

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Pesticides vary in their effects on bees. Contact pesticides are usually sprayed on plants and can kill bees when they crawl over sprayed surfaces of plants or other areas around it. Systemic pesticides, on the other hand, are usually incorporated into the soil or onto seeds and move up into the stem, leaves, nectar, and pollen of plants. [1] [2]

Contents

Of contact pesticides, dust and wettable powder pesticides tend to be more hazardous to bees than solutions or emulsifiable concentrates. When a bee comes in contact with pesticides while foraging, the bee may die immediately without returning to the hive. In this case, the queen bee, brood, and nurse bees are not contaminated and the colony survives. Alternatively, the bee may come into contact with an insecticide and transport it back to the colony in contaminated pollen or nectar or on its body, potentially causing widespread colony death. [3]

Actual damage to bee populations is a function of toxicity and exposure of the compound, in combination with the mode of application. A systemic pesticide, which is incorporated into the soil or coated on seeds, may kill soil-dwelling insects, such as grubs or mole crickets as well as other insects, including bees, that are exposed to the leaves, fruits, pollen, and nectar of the treated plants. [4]

Pesticides, especially neonicotinoids, have been investigated in relation to risks for bees such as Colony Collapse Disorder. A 2018 review by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that most uses of neonicotinoid pesticides such as clothianidin represent a risk to wild bees and honeybees. [5] [6] Neonicotinoids have been banned for all outdoor use in the entire European Union since 2018, but has a conditional approval in the U.S. and other parts of the world, where it is widely used. [7] [8]

Classification

Insecticide toxicity is generally measured using acute contact toxicity values LD50 – the exposure level that causes 50% of the population exposed to die. Toxicity thresholds are generally set at [9] [10]

Pesticide toxicity

Acute toxicity

The acute toxicity of pesticides on bees, which could be by contact or ingestion, is usually quantified by LD50. Acute toxicity of pesticides causes a range of effects on bees, which can include agitation, vomiting, wing paralysis, arching of the abdomen similar to sting reflex, and uncoordinated movement. Acute toxicity may depend on the mode of exposure, for instance, many pesticides cause toxic effects by contact while neonicotinoids are more toxic when consumed orally. [11] The acute toxicity, although more lethal, is less common than sub-lethal toxicity or cumulative effects. [12]

Sublethal and chronic effects

Field exposure to pesticides, especially with relation to neonicotinoids, [13] may lead to multiple physiological and/or behavioral sublethal effects in exposed bees. [14] Sublethal effects to honey bees can include disruptions to behavioral and motor functions, compromised immunity, and delayed development. [15] [16] [17]

Colony collapse disorder

Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is a syndrome that is characterized by the sudden loss of adult bees from the hive. Many possible explanations for it have been proposed, but no one primary cause has been found. The US Department of Agriculture indicated in a 2010 report to Congress that a combination of factors could be causing colony collapse disorder, including pesticides, pathogens, and parasites. Although pesticides were suspected to be part of the problem, a survey of healthy and CCD-affected colonies revealed similar levels of pesticides in wax and pollen. [18]

Bee kill rate per hive

The kill rate of bees in a single bee hive can be classified as: [19]

< 100 bees per day – normal die off rate
200–400 bees per day – low kill
500–900 bees per day – moderate kill
1000+ bees per day – high kill

Pesticide formulations

Pesticides come in different formulations: [3]

Pesticides

All substances listed are insecticides, except for 2,4-D, which is an herbicide. Some substances are arachnicides too.

Common name (ISO)Examples of Brand namesPesticide Classlength of residual toxicityCommentsBee toxicity
Aldicarb Temik Carbamate apply 4 weeks before bloomRelatively nontoxic
Carbaryl [20] Sevin,

(b) Sevin XLR

 Carbamate High risk to bees

foraging even 10 hours after spraying; 3 – 7 days (b) 8 hours @ 1.5 lb/acre (1681 g/Ha) or less.

Bees poisoned with carbaryl can take 2–3 days to die, appearing inactive as if cold. Sevin should never be sprayed on flowering crops, especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination. Less toxic formulations exist.Highly toxic
Carbofuran [21] Furadan Carbamate 7 – 14 days U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ban on use on crops grown for human consumption (2009) carbofuran (banned in granular form) [21] Highly toxic
Methomyl [22] Lannate, Nudrin Carbamate 2 hoursShould never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Methiocarb Mesurol Carbamate Highly toxic
Mexacarbate [23] Zectran Carbamate Highly toxic
Pirimicarb Pirimor, Aphox Carbamate Relatively nontoxic
Propoxur [24] Baygon Carbamate Propoxur is highly toxic to honey bees. The LD50 for bees is greater than one ug/honey bee.[ citation needed ]Highly toxic
Acephate [25] Orthene Organophosphate 3 daysAcephate is a broad-spectrum insecticide and is highly toxic to bees and other beneficial insects. [26] Moderately toxic
Azinphos-methyl [27] Guthion, Methyl-Guthion Organophosphate 2.5 daysBanned in EU since 2006. [28] Highly toxic
Chlorpyrifos [29] Dursban, Lorsban Organophosphate Banned in US for home and garden use. Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Coumaphos [30] Checkmite Organophosphate This is an insecticide that is used inside the beehive to combat varroa mites and small hive beetles, which are parasites of the honey bee. Overdoses can lead to bee poisoning.Relatively nontoxic
Demeton Systox Organophosphate <2 hoursHighly toxic
Demeton-S-methyl [31] Meta-systox Organophosphate Banned worldwide for toxicity to humansModerately toxic
Diazinon [32] Spectracide Organophosphate Sale of diazinon for residential use was discontinued in the U.S. in 2004. Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Dicrotophos [33] Bidrin Organophosphate Dicrotophos toxicity duration is about one week. [34] highly toxic
Dichlorvos [35] DDVP, Vapona Organophosphate Highly toxic
Dimethoate [36] Cygon, De-Fend Organophosphate 3 daysShould never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Fenthion [37] Entex, Baytex, Baycid, Dalf, DMPT, Mercaptophos, Prentox, Fenthion 4E, Queletox, Lebaycid Organophosphate Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Fenitrothion [38] Sumithion Organophosphate Highly toxic
Fensulfothion Dasanit Organophosphate Highly toxic
Fonofos [39] Dyfonate EC Organophosphate 3 hours List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC) Highly toxic
Malathion Malathion USB, ~ EC, Cythion, maldison, mercaptothion Organophosphate >8 fl oz/acre (58 L/km2) ⇒ 5.5 daysMalathion is highly toxic to bees and other beneficial insects, some fish, and other aquatic life. Malathion is moderately toxic to other fish and birds, and is considered low in toxicity to mammals. [40] Highly toxic
Methamidophos [41] Monitor, Tameron Organophosphate Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Methidathion [42] Supracide Organophosphate Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Methyl parathion Parathion, [43] Penncap-M Organophosphate 5–8 daysIt is classified as a UNEP persistent organic pollutant and WHO Toxicity Class, "Ia, Extremely Hazardous".[ citation needed ]Highly toxic
Mevinphos [44] Phosdrin Organophosphate highly toxic
Monocrotophos [45] Azodrin Organophosphate Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Naled [46] Dibrom Organophosphate 16 hoursHighly toxic
Omethoate Organophosphate Should never be sprayed on flowering crops especially if bees are active and the crop requires pollination.Highly toxic
Oxydemeton-methyl [47] Metasystox-R Organophosphate <2 hoursHighly toxic
Phorate [48] Thimet EC Organophosphate 5 hoursHighly toxic
Phosmet [49] Imidan Organophosphate Phosmet is very toxic to honeybees. [50] Highly toxic
Phosphamidon Dimecron Organophosphate Highly toxic
Pyrazophos Afugan Organophosphate FungicideHighly toxic
Tetrachlorvinphos Rabon, Stirofos, Gardona, Gardcide Organophosphate Highly toxic
Trichlorfon, MetrifonateDylox, Dipterex Organophosphate 3 – 6 hoursRelatively nontoxic
Bifenthrin [51] [52] Agri-Medk, Abamectin, Talstar, Bifenthrine, Brigade, Capture, FMC 54800, OMS3024, Torant (with Clofentezine), and Zipak (with Amitraz) [53] Pyrethroid < 1 day RT

> 1 day ERT

Highly toxic
Permethrin [54] Ambush, Pounce Pyrethroid 1 – 2 daysSafened by repellency under arid conditions. Permethrin is also the active ingredient in insecticides used against the Small hive beetle, which is a parasite of the beehive in the temperate climate regions.Highly toxic
Cypermethrin [55] Ammo, Demon, Raid, Viper Pyrethroid Less than 2 hoursCypermethrin is found in many household ant and cockroach killers, including Raid and ant chalk.Highly toxic
Fenvalerate [56] Asana, Pydrin Pyrethroid 1 daySafened by repellency under arid conditionsHighly toxic
Resmethrin [57] [58] [59] Black Flag Mosquito Fog Solution, Chrysron, Crossfire, Pynosect, Raid Flying Insect Killer, Scourge, Sun-Bugger #4, SPB-1382, Synthrin, Syntox, Vectrin, Whitmire PT-110 Pyrethroid Resmethrin is highly toxic to bees, with an LD50 of 0.063 ug/bee.[ citation needed ]Highly toxic
Methoxychlor [60] DMDT, MarlateChlorinated cyclodiene 2 hoursavailable as a General Use Pesticide Highly toxic
Endosulfan [61] ThiodanChlorinated cyclodiene 8 hoursBanned in EU (2007?), Banned in NZ (2009)Moderately toxic
Clothianidin Poncho Neonicotinoid Banned in EU for outdoor use since 2018.Highly Toxic [62]
Thiamethoxam Actara Neonicotinoid Banned in EU for outdoor use since 2018.Highly Toxic
Imidacloprid Confidor, Gaucho, Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, K9 Advantix, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Amigo, SeedPlus (Chemtura Corp.), Monceren GT, Premise, Prothor, Winner Neonicotinoid Banned in France since 1999. Banned in EU for outdoor use since 2018.Highly toxic
Fipronil Regent, Goliath, Nexa, Adonis, Termidor, Ultrathor, Fipforce, Taurus, Combat Ant-Rid, Anthem, Clearout, Radiate Phenylpyrazole Banned in EU for use on maize and sunflowers since 2014.Highly toxic
Sulfoxaflor Sulfoximine [63] [64]
Dicofol Acaricide Relatively nontoxic
Petroleum oilsRelatively nontoxic
2,4-D [65] Weed B Gon (also contains dicamba), ingredient in over 1,500 productsSynthetic auxin herbicide Relatively nontoxic

Highly toxic and banned in the US

Regulatory policy

Based on a risks to bee health as identified by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in April 2013 the EU decided to restrict the use of the neonicotinoids thiamethoxam, clothianidin, and imidacloprid. [71] Fipronil was also banned for use on maize and sunflowers. [72]

In 2015, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed to prohibit the application of certain pesticides and herbicides that are known to be toxic to bees during pollination periods when crops are in bloom. Seed treatments were not considered to present a risk to bee health. A modified form of these proposals was adopted as EPA policy in January 2017. [73]

In April 2018, member states of the European Union agreed upon a total ban on neonicotinoid insecticide use, except within closed greenhouses. [74] The vote on the proposed ban followed a February 2018 report from the EFSA which concluded that neonicotinoids posed a high risk to both domestic and wild bees. [75] The ban had strong public support, but faced criticism from the agrochemical industry, and from certain farmers' groups. [76]

In 2020, the EPA supplemented its policy with a proposal to restrict the use of neonicotinoids on residential lawns and turf, but otherwise confirmed that they would remain in use in the US. [77]

General measures to prevent pesticide bee kills

Application of pesticides at evening or night

Avoiding the application of pesticides directly to blooming flowers can help limit the exposure of honeybees to toxic materials. If blooming flowers must be sprayed with pesticides for any reason, they should be sprayed in the evening or night hours when bees are not in the field. The usual foraging hours of honeybees are during the daytime when the temperature is above 55–60 °F (13–16 °C). [3] [52] [78]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insecticide</span> Pesticide used against insects

Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Acaricides, which kill mites and ticks, are not strictly insecticides, but are usually classified together with insecticides. The major use of Insecticides is agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden, industrial buildings, vector control and control of insect parasites of animals and humans. Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in the 20th-century's agricultural productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some become concentrated as they spread along the food chain.

Under United States law, pesticide misuse is considered to be the use of a pesticide in a way that violates laws regulating their use or endangers humans or the environment; many of these regulations are laid out in the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Pesticide misuse encompasses a range of practices, including overapplication, incorrect timing, and the use of banned substances. This global issue not only threatens environmental safety but also undermines efforts towards sustainability. The risk of pesticide pollution at a global scale necessitates a concerted effort to understand and mitigate misuse. The most common instances of pesticide misuse are applications inconsistent with the labeling, which can include the use of a material in any way not described on the label, changing dosage rates, or violating specific safety instructions. Pesticide labels have been criticized as a poor risk communication vehicle, leading some officials and researchers to question whether "misuse" is an appropriate term for what are often "unintended uses" resulting from a poor understanding of safety and application instructions. Other kinds of pesticide misuse include the sale or use of an unregistered pesticide or one whose registration has been revoked and the sale or use of an adulterated or misbranded pesticide. Under most jurisdictions, it is illegal to alter or remove pesticide labels, to sell restricted pesticides to an uncertified applicator, or to fail to maintain sales and use records of restricted pesticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bifenthrin</span> Chemical compound

Bifenthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. It is widely used against ant infestations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imidacloprid</span> Chemical compound

Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. Specifically, it causes a blockage of the nicotinergic neuronal pathway. By blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, imidacloprid prevents acetylcholine from transmitting impulses between nerves, resulting in the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on contact and via stomach action. Because imidacloprid binds much more strongly to insect neuron receptors than to mammal neuron receptors, this insecticide is more toxic to insects than to mammals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorpyrifos</span> Chemical compound

Chlorpyrifos (CPS), also known as chlorpyrifos ethyl, is an organophosphate pesticide that has been used on crops, animals, and buildings, and in other settings, to kill several pests, including insects and worms. It acts on the nervous systems of insects by inhibiting the acetylcholinesterase enzyme. Chlorpyrifos was patented in 1966 by Dow Chemical Company.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aldicarb</span> Chemical compound (insecticide)

Aldicarb is a carbamate insecticide which is the active substance in the pesticide Temik. It is effective against thrips, aphids, spider mites, lygus, fleahoppers, and leafminers, but is primarily used as a nematicide. Aldicarb is a cholinesterase inhibitor which prevents the breakdown of acetylcholine in the synapse. Aldicarb is considered "extremely hazardous" by the EPA and World Health Organization and has been banned in more than 100 countries. In case of severe poisoning, the victim dies of respiratory failure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fipronil</span> Chemical compound

Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family. Fipronil disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the ligand-gated ion channel of the GABAA receptor and glutamate-gated chloride (GluCl) channels. This causes hyperexcitation of contaminated insects' nerves and muscles. Fipronil's specificity towards insects is believed to be due to its greater binding affinity for the GABAA receptors of insects than to those of mammals, and for its action on GluCl channels, which do not exist in mammals. As of 2017, there does not appear to be significant resistance among fleas to fipronil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorothalonil</span> Fungicide

Chlorothalonil (2,4,5,6-tetrachloroisophthalonitrile) is an organic compound mainly used as a broad spectrum, nonsystemic fungicide, with other uses as a wood protectant, pesticide, acaricide, and to control mold, mildew, bacteria, algae. Chlorothalonil-containing products are sold under the names Bravo, Echo, and Daconil. It was first registered for use in the US in 1966. In 1997, the most recent year for which data are available, it was the third most used fungicide in the US, behind only sulfur and copper, with 12 million pounds used in agriculture that year. Including nonagricultural uses, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates, on average, almost 15 million lb (6.8 million kg) were used annually from 1990 to 1996.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosmet</span> Organophosphate non-systemic insecticide

Phosmet is a phthalimide-derived, non-systemic, organophosphate insecticide used on plants and animals. It is mainly used on apple trees for control of codling moth, though it is also used on a wide range of fruit crops, ornamentals, and vines for the control of aphids, suckers, mites, and fruit flies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bees and toxic chemicals</span>

Bees can suffer serious effects from toxic chemicals in their environments. These include various synthetic chemicals, particularly insecticides, as well as a variety of naturally occurring chemicals from plants, such as ethanol resulting from the fermentation of organic materials. Bee intoxication can result from exposure to ethanol from fermented nectar, ripe fruits, and manmade and natural chemicals in the environment.

Neonicotinoids are a class of neuro-active insecticides chemically similar to nicotine, developed by scientists at Shell and Bayer in the 1980s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of pesticides</span> Environmental effect

The environmental effects of pesticides describe the broad series of consequences of using pesticides. The unintended consequences of pesticides is one of the main drivers of the negative impact of modern industrial agriculture on the environment. Pesticides, because they are toxic chemicals meant to kill pest species, can affect non-target species, such as plants, animals and humans. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Other agrochemicals, such as fertilizers, can also have negative effects on the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clothianidin</span> Chemical compound

Clothianidin is an insecticide developed by Takeda Chemical Industries and Bayer AG. Similar to thiamethoxam and imidacloprid, it is a neonicotinoid. Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides that are chemically similar to nicotine, which has been used as a pesticide since the late 1700s. Clothianidin and other neonicotinoids act on the central nervous system of insects as an agonist of nAChR, the same receptor as acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that stimulates and activating post-synaptic acetylcholine receptors but not inhibiting AChE. Clothianidin and other neonicotinoids were developed to last longer than nicotine, which is more toxic and which breaks down too quickly in the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colony collapse disorder</span> Aspect of apiculture

Colony collapse disorder (CCD) is an abnormal phenomenon that occurs when the majority of worker bees in a honey bee colony disappear, leaving behind a queen, plenty of food, and a few nurse bees to care for the remaining immature bees. While such disappearances have occurred sporadically throughout the history of apiculture, and have been known by various names, the syndrome was renamed colony collapse disorder in early 2007 in conjunction with a drastic rise in reports of disappearances of western honey bee colonies in North America. Beekeepers in most European countries had observed a similar phenomenon since 1998, especially in Southern and Western Europe; the Northern Ireland Assembly received reports of a decline greater than 50%. The phenomenon became more global when it affected some Asian and African countries as well. From 1990 to 2021, the United Nation’s FAO calculated that the worldwide number of honeybee colonies increased 47%, reaching 102 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acetamiprid</span> Chemical compound

Acetamiprid is an organic compound with the chemical formula C10H11ClN4. It is an odorless neonicotinoid insecticide produced under the trade names Assail, and Chipco by Aventis CropSciences. It is systemic and intended to control sucking insects (Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, mainly aphids) on crops such as leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, pome fruits, grapes, cotton, cole crops, and ornamental plants. It is also a key pesticide in commercial cherry farming due to its effectiveness against the larvae of the cherry fruit fly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naled</span> Organophosphate insecticide

Naled (Dibrom) is an organophosphate insecticide. Its chemical name is dimethyl 1,2-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethylphosphate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thiamethoxam</span> Chemical compound

Thiamethoxam is the ISO common name for a mixture of cis-trans isomers used as a systemic insecticide of the neonicotinoid class. It has a broad spectrum of activity against many types of insects and can be used as a seed dressing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thiacloprid</span> Chemical compound

Thiacloprid is an insecticide of the neonicotinoid class. Its mechanism of action is similar to other neonicotinoids and involves disruption of the insect's nervous system by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Thiacloprid was developed by Bayer CropScience for use on agricultural crops to control of a variety of sucking and chewing insects, primarily aphids and whiteflies.

The 2008 German beekill incident occurred in July 2008, when German authorities reported that more than 11,000 beehives were affected and millions of bees were killed in an agricultural chemical poisoning incident from late April to early May that year. Affected beekeepers reported that 50 to 100 percent of their hives had been lost after pneumatic equipment used to plant corn seed blew clouds of pesticide dust into the air, which was then pushed by the wind onto neighboring canola fields in which managed bees were performing pollinator services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulfoxaflor</span> Chemical compound

Sulfoxaflor, also marketed as Isoclast, is a systemic insecticide that acts as an insect neurotoxin. A pyridine and a trifluoromethyl compound, it is a member of a class of chemicals called sulfoximines, which act on the central nervous system of insects.

References

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