Dicamba

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Contents

Dicamba [1]
Dicamba.svg
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
3,6-Dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid
Other names
3,6-Dichloro-o-anisic acid
Dianat
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.016.033 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
KEGG
PubChem CID
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C8H6Cl2O3/c1-13-7-5(10)3-2-4(9)6(7)8(11)12/h2-3H,1H3,(H,11,12) Yes check.svgY
    Key: IWEDIXLBFLAXBO-UHFFFAOYSA-N Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1/C8H6Cl2O3/c1-13-7-5(10)3-2-4(9)6(7)8(11)12/h2-3H,1H3,(H,11,12)
    Key: IWEDIXLBFLAXBO-UHFFFAOYAV
  • Clc1ccc(Cl)c(c1OC)C(=O)O
Properties
C8H6Cl2O3
Molar mass 221.03 g·mol−1
AppearanceWhite crystalline solid
Density 1.57
Melting point 114 to 116 °C (237 to 241 °F; 387 to 389 K)
"low" [2]
Solubility in acetone 810 g/L
Solubility in ethanol 922 g/L
Hazards
GHS labelling: [3]
GHS-pictogram-acid.svg GHS-pictogram-exclam.svg
Danger
H302, H318, H412
P273, P280, P305+P351+P338
Flash point 199 °C (390 °F; 472 K)
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Dicamba (3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid) is a selective systemic herbicide first registered in 1967. [4] Brand names for formulations of this herbicide include Dianat, Banvel, Diablo, Oracle and Vanquish. This chemical compound is a chlorinated derivative of o-anisic acid. [5] It has been described as a "widely used, low-cost, environmentally friendly herbicide that does not persist in soils and shows little or no toxicity to wildlife and humans." [6]

Despite its success in improving crop yields, dicamba has attracted controversy. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), dicamba's primary ecological risk is for non-target terrestrial plants from exposure through spray drift, whereby dicamba inadvertently migrates to non-targeted neighboring areas, damaging those plants. [7] [8]

In 2016, dicamba was approved for use in the United States over GMO dicamba-resistant crops created by Monsanto. Dicamba came under significant scrutiny due to its tendency to spread from treated fields into neighboring fields, causing damage. [9] The controversy led to litigation, state bans and additional restrictions over dicamba use.

Use as an herbicide

Dicamba use in the US in 2019. Usage has substantially increased since dicamba was approved for use over dicamba-resistant GMO crops in 2016. Dicamba USA 2019.png
Dicamba use in the US in 2019. Usage has substantially increased since dicamba was approved for use over dicamba-resistant GMO crops in 2016.

Dicamba is a selective and systemic herbicide that kills annual and perennial broadleaf weeds. [10] Its primary commercial applications are weed control for grain crops and turf areas. It is also used to control brush and bracken in pastures, as well as controlling legumes and cacti. In combination with a phenoxy herbicide or with other herbicides, dicamba can be used for weed control in range land and other noncrop areas (fence rows, roadways, and wastage). Dicamba is toxic to conifer species but is in general less toxic to grasses. [2] Dicamba is a synthetic auxin that functions by increasing plant growth rate, leading to senescence and cell death. [2] [11]

The growth regulating properties of dicamba were first discovered by Zimmerman and Hitchcock in 1942. [12] Soon after, Jealott's Hill Experimental Station in England was evaluating dicamba in the field. Dicamba has since been used for household and commercial weed control.

Increasing use of dicamba has been reported with the release of dicamba-resistant genetically modified plants by Monsanto. In October 2016, the EPA launched a criminal investigation into the illegal application of older, drift prone formulations of dicamba onto these new plants. [13] [14] Older formulations have been reported to drift after application and affect other crops not meant to be treated. [15] [16] A less volatile formulation of dicamba made by Monsanto, designed to be less prone to vaporizing and inhibit unintended drift between fields, was approved for use in the United States by the EPA in 2016, and was commercially available in 2017. [17] As a result, the use of dicamba in US agriculture rose sharply from approximately 8,000,000 pounds (3,600,000 kg) in 2016 to 30,000,000 pounds (14,000,000 kg) in 2019, according to the US Geological Survey. [18]

Drift

Dicamba came under scrutiny due to its reputation for drifting from treated fields onto neighboring crops. [19] [20] In 2011, the European Food Safety Authority identified dicamba's potential for long-range transport through the atmosphere as a critical area of concern. [21] In 2022, the United States Environmental Protection Agency identified spray drift as the primary ecological risk for dicamba due to its potential effects on non-target terrestrial plants. [8] Dicamba is also available in a drift-resistant formulation, which is less likely to affect neighboring fields.

Toxicology

Humans

In 2022 the EPA identified potential occupational risks to handlers mixing and loading dry flowable formulations for application to sod and field crops. [8] The Agency did not identify dietary, residential, aggregate, or post-application risks of concern. [8]

Increased lung and colon cancer rate ratios and positive exposure–response patterns were reported for dicamba, in a review of data gathered in the National Institutes of Health's Agricultural Health Study. [22] The Cross-Canada Study of Pesticides and Health found that exposure to dicamba increased the risk of non-Hodgkins lymphoma in men. [23]

Mammals

Dicamba has low toxicity by ingestion and inhalation or dermal exposure (oral LD50 in rats: 757 mg/kg body weight, dermal LD50 in rats: >2,000 mg/kg, inhalation LC50 in rats: >200 mg/L). In a three-generation study, dicamba did not affect the reproductive capacity of rats. [24]

When rabbits were given doses of 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 10, or 20 (mg/kg)/day of technical dicamba from days 6 through 18 of pregnancy, toxic effects on the mothers, slightly reduced fetal body weights, and increased loss of fetuses occurred at the 10 mg/kg dose. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set the NOAEL for this study at 3 (mg/kg)/day. [24]

In dog tests, some enlargement of liver cells has occurred, but a similar effect has not been shown in humans. [24]

Aquatic animals

Dicamba and its derivatives are practically nontoxic to aquatic invertebrates. Studies suggest that dicamba should be considered to be a potential endocrine disruptor for fish at environmentally relevant concentrations. [25]

Birds and bees

The 2022 EPA draft ecological risk assessment identified potential adverse effects to birds, and bee larvae for all dicamba uses. [8]

Genetically modified crops

The soil bacterium Pseudomonas maltophilia (strain DI-6) converts dicamba to 3,6-dichlorosalicylic acid (3,6-DCSA), which lacks herbicidal activity. The enzymes responsible for this first breakdown step comprise a three-component system called dicamba O-demethylase. [6]

In the 2000s, Monsanto incorporated one component of the three enzymes into the genome of soybean, cotton, and other broadleaf crop plants, making them resistant to dicamba. [6] Monsanto has marketed their dicamba resistant crops under the brand name Xtend. [26]

Farmers have expressed concern about being forced to grow resistant crops as protection against drifting dicamba. [26]

Resistance

Herbicide resistance after the introduction of resistant crops is a common concern with herbicide. [26] [27] In the laboratory, researchers have demonstrated weed resistance to dicamba within three generations of exposure. [26] This effect is illustrated by glyphosate-resistant crops (marketed as 'Roundup Ready'). [26] [27] [28] The weed species Amaranthus palmeri and Bassia scoparia developed resistance to dicamba already in the 1990s. [29]

Dicamba's HRAC resistance class is Group I (Aus), Group O (Global), Group 4 (numeric). [30] [31]

Environmental fate

Pathway for biodegradation of dicamba DicambaDeMeth.svg
Pathway for biodegradation of dicamba

Dicamba is poorly soluble in water. [2] A study conducted from 1991 to 1996 by the U.S. Geologic Survey found dicamba in 0.13% of the groundwaters surveyed. The maximum level detected was 0.0021 mg/L. [32]

It is biodegraded by both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria to 3,6-dichlorosalicylic acid. This conversion is catalyzed by a dicamba monooxygenase, which hydroxylates the methyl group of dicamba. The hydroxymethylated derivative hydrolyzes readily to an inactive dichlorosalicylic acid or its conjugate base. Modification of the gene encoding this enzyme is one strategy toward dicamba-resistant crops. [33] The dichlorosalicylic acid is far less toxic than dicamba, which is already rather low. [34] [35]

Use on dicamba-tolerant crops

Complaints against dicamba accelerated after the United States EPA approved a Monsanto-created soybean which could tolerate it in 2016. [36] The soybean was a part of Monsanto's Xtend products. [36] Dicamba was approved by the EPA for "over-the-top" (OTT) use on those dicamba-tolerant soybean and cotton crops. [8] In 2017 and again in 2018, EPA amended the registrations of all OTT dicamba products following reports that farmers had experienced crop damage and economic losses resulting from spray drifting. [8]

Arkansas and Missouri banned the sale and use of dicamba in July 2017 in response to complaints of crop damage due to drift. [37] Monsanto responded by arguing that not all instances of crop damage had been investigated and a ban was premature. [38] Monsanto sued the state of Arkansas to stop the ban, but the case was dismissed in February 2018. [39] It has also been acknowledged that the use of dicamba had increased since 2017. [40] [41]

In June 2020, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals blocked sales of three dicamba-based herbicides in the United States, finding that the Environmental Protection Agency "substantially understated risks that it acknowledged and failed entirely to acknowledge other risks." [42] [43] [8] The EPA's Office of the Inspector General concluded that the EPA had deviated from typical procedures in its 2018 decision despite the best efforts of EPA's career scientists and managers to recommend a different approach that was scientifically, procedurally, and legally sound. [8]

On 8 June 2020, the EPA clarified that existing stocks of the dicamba-based pesticides bought before 3 June 2020 may be used according to their previous labels until 31 July 2020. [44] In October 2020 the EPA issued a decision on the registration application of three dicamba-based products, Xtendimax, Engenia, and Tavium. They approved of their use from 2021 to 2025 with some additional changes, including labeling restrictions. [45]

Despite the control measures implemented by the EPA in 2020, the 2021 incident reports showed little change in the number, severity, and/or geographic extent of dicamba-related incidents. [8] In March 2022 and in February 2023, EPA approved additional labeling to further restrict use of OTT dicamba to reduce the likelihood of volatility and offsite movement of OTT dicamba by avoiding application on days with high temperatures. [8] The restriction apply to Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and South Dakota. [8]

Lawsuits

In February 2018, it was reported that numerous farmers from 21 states had filed lawsuits against Monsanto alleging that dicamba damaged their crops, with the most prominent cases coming from Missouri and Arkansas. [46] By August 2019, more lawsuits were filed, alleging that dicamba had damaged crops, gardens, and trees of neighbors of the farmers who used it. [40] [41]

On 27 January 2020, the first trial concerning dicamba-related products began in Cape Girardeau, Missouri. [47] [48] The lawsuit involves a peach farmer who alleged that dicamba-based herbicides caused significant damage to his crops and trees. [49] It had also been filed in November 2016, when dicamba was still owned by Monsanto. [50] [51] [52] On 14 February 2020, the jury involved in the lawsuit ruled against dicamba owner Bayer and its co-defendant BASF and found in favor of the peach grower, Bader Farms owner Bill Bader. [53] Bayer and BASF were also ordered to pay Bader $15 million in damages. [54] On 15 February 2020, Monsanto and BASF were ordered to pay an additional $250 million in punitive damages. [55] [56] Court documents revealed Monsanto had used dicamba drift as a sales pitch to convince farmers to buy their proprietary dicamba-resistant seeds or face devastated crops. [57]

On 17 February, it was announced that dicamba would face many more lawsuits. [58] On 26 February, the Peiffer Wolf Carr & Kane Law Firm announced that after the Bader verdict, more than 2,000 U.S. farmers hired the law firm to represent them in upcoming lawsuits. [59]

In June 2020, Bayer agreed to a settlement of up to $400 million for all 2015–2020 crop year dicamba claims, not including the $250 million judgement. [60] On 25 November 2020, U.S. District Judge Stephen Limbaugh Jr. reduced the punitive damage amount in the Bader Farms case to $60 million. [61]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbicide</span> Type of chemical used to kill unwanted plants

Herbicides, also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds. Selective herbicides control specific weed species while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides kill plants indiscriminately. The combined effects of herbicides, nitrogen fertilizer, and improved cultivars has increased yields of major crops by 3x to 6x from 1900 to 2000.

The Monsanto Company was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri. Monsanto's best-known product is Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide, developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roundup (herbicide)</span> Glyphosate-based herbicide made by Monsanto

Roundup is a brand name of herbicide originally produced by Monsanto, which Bayer acquired in 2018. Prior to the late-2010s formulations, it used broad-spectrum glyphosate-based herbicides. As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides still represented about 10 percent of Monsanto's revenue despite competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides. The overall Roundup line of products represented about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue in 2009. The product is marketed to consumers by Scotts Miracle-Gro Company. In the late-2010s other non-glyphosate containing herbicides were also sold under the Roundup brand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BASF</span> German chemicals company

BASF SE, an initialism of its original name Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik, is a European multinational company and the largest chemical producer in the world. Its headquarters are located in Ludwigshafen, Germany.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glyphosate</span> Systemic herbicide and crop desiccant

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP). It is used to kill weeds, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops. Its herbicidal effectiveness was discovered by Monsanto chemist John E. Franz in 1970. Monsanto brought it to market for agricultural use in 1974 under the trade name Roundup. Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent expired in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraquat</span> Chemical compound used as an herbicide

Paraquat (trivial name; ), or N,N′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium dichloride (systematic name), also known as methyl viologen, is an organic compound with the chemical formula [(C6H7N)2]Cl2. It is classified as a viologen, a family of redox-active heterocycles of similar structure. This salt is one of the most widely used herbicides. It is quick-acting and non-selective, killing green plant tissue on contact. It is also toxic (lethal) to human beings and animals due to its redox activity, which produces superoxide anions. It has been linked to the development of Parkinson's disease and is banned in 58 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alachlor</span> Chemical compound; herbicide

Alachlor is an herbicide from the chloroacetanilide family. It is an odorless, white solid. The greatest use of alachlor is for control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds in crops. Use of alachlor is illegal in the European Union and no products containing alachlor are currently registered in the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atrazine</span> Herbicide

Atrazine is a chlorinated herbicide of the triazine class. It is used to prevent pre-emergence broadleaf weeds in crops such as maize (corn), soybean and sugarcane and on turf, such as golf courses and residential lawns. Atrazine's primary manufacturer is Syngenta and it is one of the most widely used herbicides in the United States, Canadian, and Australian agriculture. Its use was banned in the European Union in 2004, when the EU found groundwater levels exceeding the limits set by regulators, and Syngenta could not show that this could be prevented nor that these levels were safe.

A Biopesticide is a biological substance or organism that damages, kills, or repels organisms seens as pests. Biological pest management intervention involves predatory, parasitic, or chemical relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenoxy herbicide</span> Class of herbicide

Phenoxy herbicides are two families of chemicals that have been developed as commercially important herbicides, widely used in agriculture. They share the part structure of phenoxyacetic acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glufosinate</span> Broad-spectrum herbicide

Glufosinate is a naturally occurring broad-spectrum herbicide produced by several species of Streptomyces soil bacteria. Glufosinate is a non-selective, contact herbicide, with some systemic action. Plants may also metabolize bialaphos and phosalacine, other naturally occurring herbicides, directly into glufosinate. The compound irreversibly inhibits glutamine synthetase, an enzyme necessary for the production of glutamine and for ammonia detoxification, giving it antibacterial, antifungal and herbicidal properties. Application of glufosinate to plants leads to reduced glutamine and elevated ammonia levels in tissues, halting photosynthesis and resulting in plant death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roundup Ready</span> Trademark for genetically modified crop seeds

Roundup Ready is the Bayer trademark for its patented line of genetically modified crop seeds that are resistant to its glyphosate-based herbicide, Roundup.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pesticide drift</span> Diffusion of pesticides into the environment

Pesticide drift, also known as spray drift refers to the unintentional diffusion of pesticides toward nontarget species. It is one of the most negative effects of pesticide application. Drift can damage human health, environment, and crops. Together with runoff and leaching, drift is a mechanism for agricultural pollution. Some drift results from contamination of sprayer tanks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bayer</span> German multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company

Bayer AG is a German multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company and is one of the largest pharmaceutical companies and biomedical companies in the world. Headquartered in Leverkusen, Bayer's areas of business include: pharmaceuticals, consumer healthcare products, agricultural chemicals, seeds and biotechnology products. The company is a component of the EURO STOXX 50 stock market index.

The Center for Food Safety (CFS) is a 501(c)(3), U.S. non-profit advocacy organization, based in Washington, D.C. It maintains an office in San Francisco, California, and Portland, Oregon. CFS's mission is to empower people, support farmers, and protect the earth from the harmful impacts of industrial agriculture through groundbreaking legal, scientific, and grassroots action. It was founded in 1997.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid</span> Herbicide

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula Cl2C6H3OCH2CO2H. It is usually referred to by its ISO common name 2,4-D. It is a systemic herbicide that kills most broadleaf weeds by causing uncontrolled growth, but most grasses such as cereals, lawn turf, and grassland are relatively unaffected.

The Enlist Weed Control System is an agricultural system that includes seeds for genetically modified crops that are resistant to Enlist and the Enlist herbicide; spraying the herbicide will kill weeds but not the resulting crop. The system was developed by Dow AgroSciences, part of Dow Chemical Company. In October 2014 the system was registered for restricted use in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin by the US Environmental Protection Agency. In 2013, the system was approved by Canada for the same uses.

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Glyphosate-based herbicides are usually made of a glyphosate salt that is combined with other ingredients that are needed to stabilize the herbicide formula and allow penetration into plants. The glyphosate-based herbicide Roundup was first developed by Monsanto in the 1970s. It is used most heavily on corn, soy, and cotton crops that have been genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide. Some products include two active ingredients, such as Enlist Duo which includes 2,4-D as well as glyphosate. As of 2010, more than 750 glyphosate products were on the market. The names of inert ingredients used in glyphosate formulations are usually not listed on the product labels.

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References

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  36. 1 2 "Dicamba Lawsuit | Crop Damage Compensation for Farmers". ConsumerNotice.org.
  37. ↑ Gray, Bryce (7 July 2017). "Missouri and Arkansas ban dicamba herbicide as complaints snowball". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
  38. ↑ Pucci, Jackie (10 July 2017). "Monsanto Responds to Arkansas, Missouri Dicamba Bans". Crop Life. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
  39. ↑ Nosowitz, Dan (20 February 2018). "Monsanto's Lawsuit Against Arkansas for Dicamba Ban Dismissed". Modern Farmer. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  40. 1 2 "Despite Federal, State Efforts, Dicamba Complaints Continue". Illinois Public Media. 31 August 2019.
  41. 1 2 "Farmers, Conservationists Challenge Approval of Monsanto's Crop-damaging Dicamba Pesticide". Center for Biological Diversity.
  42. ↑ "U.S. Court Blocks Sales of Bayer Weed Killer in United States". Reuters. 4 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  43. ↑ US EPA, OCSPP (8 June 2020). "Final Cancellation Order for Three Dicamba Products". US EPA. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  44. ↑ "EPA Offers Clarity to Farmers in Light of Recent Court Vacatur of Dicamba Registrations". EPA. 8 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  45. ↑ "EPA Approves Dicamba Pesticides Through 2025; Additional Restrictions Imposed". Texas Agricultural Extension. 9 November 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
  46. ↑ "Dicamba Damage Lawsuit - Monsanto Herbicide Lawyers". ClassAction.com.
  47. ↑ Ruff, Corinne (28 January 2020). "Dicamba-Related Federal Trial Begins in Southeast Missouri". news.stlpublicradio.org.
  48. ↑ "Bayer/BASF-Dicamba Lawsuit | KDUZ".
  49. ↑ Reporting, Johnathan Hettinger Midwest Center for Investigative. "Monsanto's defense: Fungal disease, not dicamba, to blame for peach farmer's problems". stltoday.com.
  50. ↑ Reporting, Johnathan Hettinger Midwest Center for Investigative. "Dicamba on trial: Monsanto officials limited testing on their own plots". stltoday.com.
  51. ↑ Ruff, Corinne (24 January 2020). "Dicamba Goes on Trial: The History Behind Monsanto's Friendship-Wilting Weed Killer". news.stlpublicradio.org.
  52. ↑ Reporting, Johnathan Hettinger Midwest Center for Investigative. "Peach farmer takes stand in lawsuit against Bayer, BASF". stltoday.com.
  53. ↑ Gray, Bryce. "Jury finds in favor of Missouri peach grower in lawsuit against Bayer, BASF". stltoday.com.
  54. ↑ "Bayer's Dicamba Hit Tests Patience of Frustrated Investors". Bloomberg.com. 14 February 2020.
  55. ↑ Ruff, Corinne (15 February 2020). "Monsanto, BASF Will Pay $250 Million in Punitive Damages in First Dicamba Trial". news.stlpublicradio.org.
  56. ↑ "Missouri Farm Awarded $265M in Suit Against BASF and Bayer". The New York Times. Associated Press. 15 February 2020.
  57. ↑ McGlashen, Andy (Winter 2022). "Bitter Harvest". Audubon . New York, NY: Audubon Society: 45. ISSN   0004-7694. OCLC   6823366.
  58. ↑ Feeley, Jef; Bross, Tim; Bloomberg (17 February 2020). "Bayer is facing a new wave of herbicide lawsuits—and this time it's not over Monsanto's Roundup". fortune.com. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  59. ↑ "More Than 2,000 Farmer Are Expected To File Dicamba-Damage Lawsuits, Says Law Firm". Successful Farming. 26 February 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
  60. ↑ Bayer To Pay More Than $10 Billion To Resolve Cancer Lawsuits Over Weedkiller Roundup
  61. ↑ Reeves, J.C. (15 December 2020). "District Judge orders reduction of punitive damages in dicamba case". Southeast Missourian. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
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