Pesticide drift

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Possible sinks of pesticide drift-caused environmental contamination Env contamination1.if.gif
Possible sinks of pesticide drift-caused environmental contamination

Pesticide drift, also known as spray drift refers to the unintentional diffusion of pesticides toward nontarget species. It is one of the most negative effects of pesticide application. Drift can damage human health, environment, and crops. [1] [2] Together with runoff and leaching, drift is a mechanism for agricultural pollution. [3] Some drift results from contamination of sprayer tanks. [4]

Contents

Farmers struggle to minimize pesticide drift and remain productive. [5] Research continues on developing pesticides that are more selective, [6] but the current pesticides have been highly optimized.

Pesticide application

Pesticides are commonly applied by the use of mechanical sprayers. Sprayers convert a pesticide formulation, often consisting of a mixture of water, the pesticide, and other components (adjuvants, for example) into droplets, which are applied to the crop. Ideally, the pesticide droplets attach evenly to the targeted crop. Because components of the mist are highly mobile, spray drift can occur, especially for smaller droplets. Some pesticides mists are visible, appearing cloud-like, while others can be invisible and odorless. [7] [8]

The quality of sprayer equipment affects drift problems. [9] [10] Sprayer tanks contaminated with another herbicide are one source of drift. [4] With placement (localised) spraying of broad spectrum pesticides, considerable efforts have been made to quantify and control spray drift from hydraulic nozzles. [11] Conversely, wind drift is also an efficient mechanism for moving droplets of an appropriate size range to their targets over a wide area with ultra-low volume (ULV) spraying. [12]

"Drift retardants" are compounds added to the spray mixture to suppress pesticide drift. A typical retardant is polyacrylamide. These polymers suppress the formation of tiny droplets. [13]

Weather conditions and timing affect the drift problem. [4] The efficiency of the spray and reach of the spray drift can be computed. [14] In addition to weather, windbreaks can mitigate the effects of drift. [15] Other ways to mitigate spray drift is to apply the pesticide directly to the desired treatment area, as well as paying attention to where surface waters, gutters, drainage ditches, and storm drains are located. This is to make sure that the pesticide is applied in a way that prevents it from getting in to these spaces. [16]

Most herbicides are organic compounds of low volatility, unlike fumigants, which are usually gases. Several are salts and others have boiling points above 100 °C (Dicamba is a solid that melts at 114°C). Thus, drift often entails mobilization of droplets, which can be very small. The contribution from their volatility, low as they are, cannot be ignored, either. [17]

A distinction has been made between "exo-drift" (the transfer of spray out of the target area) and endo-drift, where the active ingredient (AI) in droplets falls into the target area, but does not reach the biological target. "Endo-drift" is volumetrically more significant and may therefore cause greater ecological contamination (e.g. where chemical pesticides pollute ground water). [18]

Since drift can be problematic, alternative weed-control technologies have evolved. A topical approach is integrated pest management, which involves fewer chemicals but often greater manual work. [19]

Dicamba drift

Chemical structure of Dicamba, 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid Dicamba.svg
Chemical structure of Dicamba, 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid

Dicamba drift is a particular problem, as has been recognized since at least 1979. [20] The effects have been noted for many crops: grapes, tomatoes, soybeans. [21] [22] In 2017, Dicamba-resistant soybeans and cotton were approved for use in the US. This new technology worsened the drift problem because these farmers could use Dicamba more freely. [23]

Although already low in volatility, as discussed above, Dicamba can be made even less volatile by conversion to various salts. The approach entails treatment of Dicamba with amines, which form ammonium salts. These salts are described by their acronyms BAPMA-Dicamba and DGA-Dicamba. Although these salts are of lower volatility in laboratory tests, in the field the situation is more complicated, and drift remains a problem. [17]

Safety and society

Much public concern has led to research into spray drift, point source pollution (e.g. pesticides entering bodies of water following spillage of concentrate or rinsate) can also cause environmental harm. [24] Public concern for pesticide drift is not met with regulatory response. [18] Farm workers and communities surrounding large farms are at a high risk of coming in contact with pesticides. People in agricultural areas are at risk for increased genotoxicity because of pesticide drift. [25] [26]

Insecticides sprayed on crop fields can also have detrimental effects on non-human lifeforms that are important to the surrounding ecosystems like bees and other insects. [27]

The seriousness of crop injury caused by dicamba drift is increasingly being recognized. For example, the American Soybean Association and various land-grant universities are cooperating in the race to find ways to preserve the usability of dicamba while ending drift injury. [28] Application of herbicides later in the season to protect herbicide-resistant genetically modified plants increases the risk of volatilisation as the temperature is higher and incorporation into the soil impractical. [7]

From 1998 to 2006, Environmental Health Perspectives found nearly 3,000 cases of pesticide drift; nearly half were workers on the fields treated with pesticides and 14% of cases were children under the age of 15. [29]

Health concerns

Bystander exposure describes the event when individuals unintentionally come in contact with airborne pesticides. Bystanders include workers working in an area separate to the pesticide application area, individuals living in the surrounding areas of an application area, or individuals passing by fields as they are being treated with a pesticide. [30]

Pesticide application Pesticides application 02.jpg
Pesticide application

Different pesticides can affect different body systems, inflicting different symptoms. [31] Pesticides can have long-term negative health impacts, including cancer, lung diseases, fertility and reproductive problems, and neurodevelopmental issues in children, when exposure levels are high enough. [32]

Farmworkers, disproportionately of the Latinx community, experience pesticide drift frequently as a work hazard. Sparragus pickers.jpg
Farmworkers, disproportionately of the Latinx community, experience pesticide drift frequently as a work hazard.

Regulations

In 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency published a guidance to "manufacturers, formulators, and registrants of pesticide products" (EPA 2001) [33] that stated the EPA's stance against pesticide drift as well as suggested product labelling practices.

To try and reduce pesticide drift, the EPA is a part of several initiatives. The EPA has routine pesticide risk assessments to check potential drift impact on farmworkers living near or on fields where crops are grown, farmworkers, water sources, and the environment. [34] The USDA and EPA are working together to examine new studies and how to improve scientific models to estimate the exposure, risk, and drift of pesticides. [34] The EPA is also working with pesticide manufacturers to ensure labels are easy to read, contain the correct application process and DRT for that specific pesticide. [35] [36]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pesticide</span> Substance used to destroy pests

Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others. The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all pesticide use globally. Most pesticides are used as plant protection products, which in general protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that destroy property, cause nuisance, or spread disease, or are disease vectors. Along with these benefits, pesticides also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbicide</span> Type of chemical used to kill unwanted plants

Herbicides, also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds. Selective herbicides control specific weed species while leaving the desired crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides kill plants indiscriminately. The combined effects of herbicides, nitrogen fertilizer, and improved cultivars has increased yields of major crops by 3x to 6x from 1900 to 2000.

Roundup is a brand name of herbicide originally produced by Monsanto, which Bayer acquired in 2018. Prior to the late-2010s formulations, it used broad-spectrum glyphosate-based herbicides. As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides still represented about 10 percent of Monsanto's revenue despite competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides. The overall Roundup line of products represented about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue in 2009. The product is marketed to consumers by Scotts Miracle-Gro Company. In the late-2010s other non-glyphosate containing herbicides were also sold under the Roundup brand.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Glyphosate</span> Systemic herbicide and crop desiccant

Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant. It is an organophosphorus compound, specifically a phosphonate, which acts by inhibiting the plant enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSP). It is used to kill weeds, especially annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crops. Its herbicidal effectiveness was discovered by Monsanto chemist John E. Franz in 1970. Monsanto brought it to market for agricultural use in 1974 under the trade name Roundup. Monsanto's last commercially relevant United States patent expired in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraquat</span> Chemical compound used as an herbicide

Paraquat (trivial name; ), or N,N′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium dichloride (systematic name), also known as methyl viologen, is an organic compound with the chemical formula [(C6H7N)2]Cl2. It is classified as a viologen, a family of redox-active heterocycles of similar structure. This salt is one of the most widely used herbicides. It is quick-acting and non-selective, killing green plant tissue on contact. It is also toxic (lethal) to human beings and animals due to its redox activity, which produces superoxide anions. It has been linked to the development of Parkinson's disease and is banned in 58 countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aerial application</span> Dispersal of chemicals from aircraft or helicopters

Aerial application, or what is informally referred to as crop dusting, involves spraying crops with crop protection products from an agricultural aircraft. Planting certain types of seed are also included in aerial application. The specific spreading of fertilizer is also known as aerial topdressing in some countries. Many countries have severely limited aerial application of pesticides and other products because of environmental and public health hazards like spray drift; most notably, the European Union banned it outright with a few highly restricted exceptions in 2009, effectively ending the practice in all member states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atrazine</span> Herbicide

Atrazine is a chlorinated herbicide of the triazine class. It is used to prevent pre-emergence broadleaf weeds in crops such as maize (corn), soybean and sugarcane and on turf, such as golf courses and residential lawns. Atrazine's primary manufacturer is Syngenta and it is one of the most widely used herbicides in the United States, Canadian, and Australian agriculture. Its use was banned in the European Union in 2004, when the EU found groundwater levels exceeding the limits set by regulators, and Syngenta could not show that this could be prevented nor that these levels were safe.

A biopesticide is a biological substance or organism that damages, kills, or repels organisms seen as pests. Biological pest management intervention involves predatory, parasitic, or chemical relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diquat</span> Chemical compound

Diquat is the ISO common name for an organic dication that, as a salt with counterions such as bromide or chloride is used as a contact herbicide that produces desiccation and defoliation. Diquat is no longer approved for use in the European Union, although its registration in many other countries including the USA is still valid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenoxy herbicide</span> Class of herbicide

Phenoxy herbicides are two families of chemicals that have been developed as commercially important herbicides, widely used in agriculture. They share the part structure of phenoxyacetic acid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pendimethalin</span> Chemical compound

Pendimethalin is an herbicide of the dinitroaniline class used in premergence and postemergence applications to control annual grasses and certain broadleaf weeds. It inhibits cell division and cell elongation. Pendimethalin is listed in the K1-group according to the Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) classification and is approved in Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia and Oceania for different crops including cereals, corn, soybeans, rice, potato, legumes, fruits, vegetables, nuts as well as lawns and ornamental plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dicamba</span> Chemical compound used as herbicide

Dicamba is a selective systemic herbicide first registered in 1967. Brand names for formulations of this herbicide include Dianat, Banvel, Diablo, Oracle and Vanquish. This chemical compound is a chlorinated derivative of o-anisic acid. It has been described as a "widely used, low-cost, environmentally friendly herbicide that does not persist in soils and shows little or no toxicity to wildlife and humans."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pesticide application</span> Delivery of pesticides

Pesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides are delivered to their biological targets. Public concern about the use of pesticides has highlighted the need to make this process as efficient as possible, in order to minimise their release into the environment and human exposure. The practice of pest management by the rational application of pesticides is supremely multi-disciplinary, combining many aspects of biology and chemistry with: agronomy, engineering, meteorology, socio-economics and public health, together with newer disciplines such as biotechnology and information science.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ultra-low volume</span>

Ultra-low volume (ULV) application of pesticides has been defined as spraying at a Volume Application Rate (VAR) of less than 5 L/ha for field crops or less than 50 L/ha for tree/bush crops. VARs of 0.25 – 2 L/ha are typical for aerial ULV application to forest or migratory pests. In order to maintain efficacy at such low rates, droplet size must be rigorously controlled in order to minimise waste: this is Controlled Droplet Application (CDA). Although often designed for non-evaporative formulations, ULV equipment may sometimes be adapted for use with water, often at Very Low volume VAR.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of pesticides</span> Environmental effect

The environmental effects of pesticides describe the broad series of consequences of using pesticides. The unintended consequences of pesticides is one of the main drivers of the negative impact of modern industrial agriculture on the environment. Pesticides, because they are toxic chemicals meant to kill pest species, can affect non-target species, such as plants, animals and humans. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Other agrochemicals, such as fertilizers, can also have negative effects on the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bromacil</span> Chemical compound

Bromacil is an organic compound with the chemical formula C9H13BrN2O2, commercially available as a herbicide. Bromacil was first registered as a pesticide in the U.S. in 1961. It is used for brush control on non-cropland areas. It works by interfering with photosynthesis by entering the plant through the root zone and moving throughout the plant. Bromacil is one of a group of compounds called substituted uracils. These materials are broad spectrum herbicides used for nonselective weed and brush control on non-croplands, as well as for selective weed control on a limited number of crops, such as citrus fruit and pineapple. Bromacil is also found to be excellent at controlling perennial grasses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid</span> Herbicide

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula Cl2C6H3OCH2CO2H. It is usually referred to by its ISO common name 2,4-D. It is a systemic herbicide that kills most broadleaf weeds by causing uncontrolled growth, but most grasses such as cereals, lawn turf, and grassland are relatively unaffected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bentazon</span> Chemical compound

Bentazon is a chemical manufactured by BASF Chemicals for use in herbicides. It is categorized under the thiadiazine group of chemicals. Sodium bentazon is available commercially and appears slightly brown in colour.

The Enlist Weed Control System is an agricultural system that includes seeds for genetically modified crops that are resistant to Enlist and the Enlist herbicide; spraying the herbicide will kill weeds but not the resulting crop. The system was developed by Dow AgroSciences, part of Dow Chemical Company. In October 2014 the system was registered for restricted use in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, South Dakota and Wisconsin by the US Environmental Protection Agency. In 2013, the system was approved by Canada for the same uses.

Glyphosate-based herbicides are usually made of a glyphosate salt that is combined with other ingredients that are needed to stabilize the herbicide formula and allow penetration into plants. The glyphosate-based herbicide Roundup was first developed by Monsanto in the 1970s. It is used most heavily on corn, soy, and cotton crops that have been genetically modified to be resistant to the herbicide. Some products include two active ingredients, such as Enlist Duo which includes 2,4-D as well as glyphosate. As of 2010, more than 750 glyphosate products were on the market. The names of inert ingredients used in glyphosate formulations are usually not listed on the product labels.

References

  1. ↑ "Community Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Pesticide Problems". CA Dept. of Pesticide Regulation. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  2. ↑ US EPA, OCSPP (1 August 2014). "Introduction to Pesticide Drift". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  3. ↑ Egan, J. Franklin; Barlow, Kathryn M.; Mortensen, David A. (2014). "A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of 2,4-D and Dicamba Drift on Soybean and Cotton". Weed Science. 62: 193–206. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00025.1. S2CID   85873934.
  4. 1 2 3 Desmarteau, Dean A; Ritter, Amy M; Hendley, Paul; Guevara, Megan W (March 2020). "Impact of Wind Speed and Direction and Key Meteorological Parameters on Potential Pesticide Drift Mass Loadings from Sequential Aerial Applications". Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 16 (2): 197–210. Bibcode:2020IEAM...16..197D. doi:10.1002/ieam.4221. PMC   7064987 . PMID   31589364.
  5. ↑ Moeller, Daniel L. (March 2019). "Superfund, Pesticide Regulation, and Spray Drift: Rethinking the Federal Pesticide Regulatory Framework to Provide Alternative Remedies for Pesticide Damage". Iowa Law Review. 104 (3): 1523–1550. ProQuest   2212659406.
  6. ↑ Brain, Richard; Goodwin, Greg; Abi-Akar, Farah; Lee, Brian; Rodgers, Carol; Flatt, Brian; Lynn, Abby; Kruger, Greg; Perkins, Dan (August 2019). "Winds of change, developing a non-target plant bioassay employing field-based pesticide drift exposure: A case study with atrazine". Science of the Total Environment. 678: 239–252. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.678..239B. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.411. PMID   31075591. S2CID   149455432.
  7. 1 2 Pollack, Andrew (25 April 2012). "Dow Corn, Resistant to a Weed Killer, Runs Into Opposition". The New York Times.
  8. ↑ Menalled, Fabian; Dyer, William E. (19 April 2005). "Getting the Most from Soil-Applied Herbicides". Montana State University. Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  9. ↑ "Pesticide Drift – Pesticide Environmental Stewardship" . Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  10. ↑ Peters, Tom; Thostenson, Andrew; Nowatzki, John; Hofman, Vern; Wilson, James (July 2017). "Selecting Spray Nozzles to Reduce Particle Drift". NDSU Extension Service. AE1246.
  11. ↑ Hewitt, A.J., Spray drift: impact of requirements to protect the environment, Crop Protection 19 (2000) p 623-627
  12. ↑ Harrison, Jill Lindsey (2011). Pesticide Drift and the Pursuit of Environmental Justice. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262015981.001.0001. ISBN   978-0-262-01598-1.[ page needed ]
  13. ↑ Appleby, Arnold P.; Müller, Franz; Carpy, Serge (15 June 2001). "Weed Control". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_165. ISBN   978-3-527-30673-2.
  14. ↑ Hong, Se-Woon; Zhao, Lingying; Zhu, Heping (December 2018). "SAAS, a computer program for estimating pesticide spray efficiency and drift of air-assisted pesticide applications". Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. 155: 58–68. Bibcode:2018CEAgr.155...58H. doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2018.09.031 . S2CID   53791164.
  15. ↑ Ucar, Tamer; Hall, Franklin R. (2001). "Windbreaks as a Pesticide Drift Mitigation Strategy: A Review". Pest Management Science. 57 (8): 663–675. doi:10.1002/ps.341.
  16. ↑ US EPA, OCSPP (1 August 2014). "Introduction to Pesticide Drift". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  17. 1 2 Bish, Mandy D.; Farrell, Shea T.; Lerch, Robert N.; Bradley, Kevin W. (2019). "Dicamba Losses to Air after Applications to Soybean under Stable and Nonstable Atmospheric Conditions". Journal of Environmental Quality. 48 (6): 1675–1682. doi: 10.2134/jeq2019.05.0197 . ISSN   0047-2425.
  18. 1 2 Harrison, Jill Lindsey (June 2006). "'Accidents' and invisibilities: Scaled discourse and the naturalization of regulatory neglect in California's pesticide drift conflict". Political Geography. 25 (5): 506–529. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2006.02.003.
  19. ↑ Damos, Petros; Colomar, Lucía-Adriana; Ioriatti, Claudio (26 June 2015). "Integrated Fruit Production and Pest Management in Europe: The Apple Case Study and How Far We Are From the Original Concept?". Insects. 6 (3): 626–657. doi: 10.3390/insects6030626 . ISSN   2075-4450. PMC   4598656 . PMID   26463407.
  20. ↑ Behrens, Richard; Lueschen, W. E. (1979). "Dicamba Volatility". Weed Science. 27 (5): 486–493. doi:10.1017/S0043174500044453. ISSN   0043-1745.
  21. ↑ Riter, Leah S.; Pai, Naresh; Vieira, Bruno C.; MacInnes, Alison; Reiss, Richard; Hapeman, Cathleen J.; Kruger, Greg R. (8 December 2021). "Conversations about the Future of Dicamba: The Science Behind Off-Target Movement". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 69 (48): 14435–14444. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.1c05589. ISSN   0021-8561.
  22. ↑ Britt E. Erickson (28 August 2022). "EPA Finds More Risks for the Pesticide Dicamba". Chemical & Engineering News: 13–13. doi:10.47287/cen-10030-polcon1. ISSN   1520-605X.
  23. ↑ Egan, J. Franklin; Barlow, Kathryn M.; Mortensen, David A. (2014). "A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of 2,4-D and Dicamba Drift on Soybean and Cotton". Weed Science. 62 (1): 193–206. doi:10.1614/WS-D-13-00025.1. ISSN   0043-1745.
  24. ↑ Spanoghe, P.; Maes, A.; Steurbaut, W. (2004). "Limitation of point source pesticide pollution: results of bioremediation system". Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences. 69 (4): 719–732. PMID   15756863.
  25. ↑ Doğanlar, Zeynep Banu; Doğanlar, Oğuzhan; Tozkir, Hilmi; Gökalp, Fulya Dilek; Doğan, Ayten; Yamaç, Ferah; Aşkın, Orhan Onur; Aktaş, Ümmühan Ersin (November 2018). "Nonoccupational Exposure of Agricultural Area Residents to Pesticides: Pesticide Accumulation and Evaluation of Genotoxicity". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 75 (4): 530–544. Bibcode:2018ArECT..75..530D. doi:10.1007/s00244-018-0545-7. PMID   30003277. S2CID   51617217.
  26. ↑ Suratman, Suratman; Edwards, John William; Babina, Kateryna (2015). "Organophosphate pesticides exposure among farmworkers: Pathways and risk of adverse health effects". Reviews on Environmental Health. 30 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1515/reveh-2014-0072. PMID   25741936. S2CID   38705916.
  27. ↑ McEwen, F.L. (1977), "Pesticide Residues and Agricultural Workers—An Overview", Pesticide Management and Insecticide Resistance, Elsevier, pp. 37–49, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-738650-8.50008-4, ISBN   9780127386508
  28. ↑ "ASA Steps up Urgency in Search for Answers on Dicamba Damage". American Soybean Association . 25 September 2017. Retrieved 13 June 2021. This issue...
  29. ↑ Lee, Soo-Jeong; Mehler, Louise; Beckman, John; Diebolt-Brown, Brienne; Prado, Joanne; Lackovic, Michelle; Waltz, Justin; Mulay, Prakash; Schwartz, Abby; Mitchell, Yvette; Moraga-McHaley, Stephanie; Gergely, Rita; Calvert, Geoffrey M. (August 2011). "Acute Pesticide Illnesses Associated with Off-Target Pesticide Drift from Agricultural Applications: 11 States, 1998–2006". Environmental Health Perspectives. 119 (8): 1162–1169. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002843. PMC   3237344 . PMID   21642048.
  30. ↑ Matthews, Graham (2016). Pesticides: Health, Safety and the Environment. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-1-118-97602-9.[ page needed ]
  31. ↑ "Pesticide Drift Exposure and Your Health" (PDF). Minnesota Poison Control System. 30 March 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  32. ↑ "Pesticide Drift Exposure and Your Health" (PDF). Minnesota Poison Control System. 20 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
  33. ↑ "PRN 2001-X Draft: Spray and Dust Drift Label Statements for Pesticide Products". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 4 September 2014.
  34. 1 2 "What EPA is Doing to Reduce Pesticide Drift". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1 August 2014.
  35. ↑ "About the Drift Reduction Technology Program". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
  36. ↑ "Improving Labels to Reduce Pesticide Drift". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1 August 2014.

Sources

Notes

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