Dieldrin

Last updated
Dieldrin
Dieldrin-3D-balls.png
Dieldrin.svg
Names
IUPAC name
(1aR,2R,2aS,3S,6R,6aR,7S,7aS)-3,4,5,6,9,9-hexachloro-1a,2,2a,3,6,6a,7,7a-octahydro-2,7:3,6-dimethanonaphtho[2,3-b]oxirene
Other names
Dieldrin, HEOD
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.440 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
KEGG
PubChem CID
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C12H8Cl6O/c13-8-9(14)11(16)5-3-1-2(6-7(3)19-6)4(5)10(8,15)12(11,17)18/h2-7H,1H2/t2-,3+,4+,5-,6-,7+,10+,11- Yes check.svgY
    Key: DFBKLUNHFCTMDC-PICURKEMSA-N Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1/C12H8Cl6O/c13-8-9(14)11(16)5-3-1-2(6-7(3)19-6)4(5)10(8,15)12(11,17)18/h2-7H,1H2/t2-,3+,4+,5-,6-,7+,10+,11-
    Key: DFBKLUNHFCTMDC-PICURKEMBL
  • ClC5(Cl)[C@]3(Cl)C(\Cl)=C(\Cl)[C@@]5(Cl)[C@H]4[C@H]1C[C@H]([C@@H]2O[C@H]12)[C@@H]34
Properties
C12H8Cl6O
Molar mass 380.91 g/mol
Appearancecolorless to light tan crystals
Density 1.75 g/cm3
Melting point 176 to 177 °C (349 to 351 °F; 449 to 450 K)
Boiling point 385 °C (725 °F; 658 K)
0.02% [1]
Hazards
Occupational safety and health (OHS/OSH):
Main hazards
moderately toxic and a suspected carcinogen [1]
Flash point noncombustible [1]
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
45 mg/kg (oral, rabbit)
49 mg/kg (oral, guinea pig)
38 mg/kg (oral, mouse)
65 mg/kg (oral, dog)
38 mg/kg (oral, rat) [2]
80 mg/m3 (cat, 4 hr)
13 mg/m3 (rat, 4 hr) [2]
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 0.25 mg/m3 [skin] [1]
REL (Recommended)
Ca TWA 0.25 mg/m3 [skin] [1]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
Ca [50 mg/m3] [1]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
X mark.svgN  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Dieldrin is an organochlorine compound originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound. Both dieldrin and aldrin are named after the Diels-Alder reaction which is used to form aldrin from a mixture of norbornadiene and hexachlorocyclopentadiene.

Contents

Originally developed in the 1940s as an alternative to DDT, dieldrin proved to be a highly effective insecticide and was very widely used during the 1950s to early 1970s. Endrin is a stereoisomer of dieldrin.

However, it is an extremely persistent organic pollutant; it does not easily break down. Furthermore, it tends to biomagnify as it is passed along the food chain. [3] Long-term exposure has proven toxic to a very wide range of animals including humans, far greater than to the original insect targets. People who on purpose or accidentally ate large amounts of aldrin or dieldrin have suffered convulsions (spasms), and some died. Workers who were exposed to lower amounts of these chemicals, but for a longer period of time, had headaches, dizziness, irritability, vomiting, and uncontrolled muscle movement. [4] For this reason, it is now banned in most of the world.

It has been linked to health problems such as Parkinson's disease, breast cancer, and immune, reproductive, and nervous system damage. It is also an endocrine disruptor, acting as an estrogen and antiandrogen, and can adversely affect testicle development in the fetus. [5]

Production

Dieldrin can be formed from the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachloro-1,3-cyclopentadiene with norbornadiene followed by epoxidation of the addition product with a peroxy acid such as peracetic acid. [6]

Synthesis of dieldrin DieldrinSynthesis.png
Synthesis of dieldrin

Technical dieldrin contains 5-15% related polychloroepoxyoctahydro- dimethanonaphthalenes. [7] [8] The estimated combined production volume of aldrin and dieldrin in the US peaked in the mid-1960s at about 20 million pounds a year (2 million pounds of dieldrin) and then declined. [3]

Use

The chemicals dieldrin and aldrin were widely applied in agricultural areas throughout the world. They are synthetic organochlorine cyclodiene pesticides used to control subterranean insect pests such as nargles root maggots, mole cricket grubs and weevils, in agriculture. [9] Both are toxic and bioaccumulative. Aldrin does break down to dieldrin in living systems, but dieldrin is known to resist bacterial and chemical breakdown processes in the environment. Both dieldrin and aldrin have been banned (see Legislation and history below).

Aldrin was used to control soil pests (namely termites) on corn and potato crops. Dieldrin was an insecticide used on fruit, soil, and seed. It persists in the soil with a half-life of five years at temperate latitudes. Both aldrin and dieldrin may be volatilized from sediment and redistributed by air currents, contaminating areas far from their sources. They have been measured in Arctic wildlife, suggesting long range transport from southern agricultural regions. [10]

Metabolism

The metabolism of dieldrin occurs by various routes. Hydration of the epoxy group by epoxide hydrolases leads to formation of the trans-diol and to the dicarboxylic acid. The diol is the most important metabolite produced by the rabbit. [11] In the rat, the primary route of metabolism is hydroxylation of the CH2 group by liver microsomal monooxygenases, leading to production of 9-hydroxydieldrin. [11] There is hydrogen bonding between the OH and the epoxy group. It is excreted in the faeces. [12] It is likely that this is an example of enterohepatic recirculation, for bile contains the glucuronide. This is probably cleaved by gut microflora.

There is an interesting metabolite in rat urine, first described by Klein. [13] The methylene group of the dieldrin links to one end of the ClC:CCl group to form a cage structure. The other end of the original ClC:CCl is converted to a ketone. The same metabolite is produced from the photoisomer of dieldrin, in which the same cage structure is produced, but the other end of the original chlorinated double bond forms a CHCl group.

Legislation and history

Both aldrin and dieldrin have been banned in most developed countries, but aldrin is still used as a termiticide in Malaysia, Thailand, Venezuela and parts of Africa. In Canada, their sale was restricted in the mid-1970s, with the last registered use of the compounds in Canada being withdrawn in 1984. [14]

The International Programme on Chemical Safety quotes the World Health Organization as stating dieldrin is prohibited for use in agriculture in, among others, Brazil, Ecuador, Finland, the German Democratic Republic, Singapore, Sweden, Yugoslavia, and the USSR. The European Community legislation prohibits the marketing of phytopharmaceutical products containing dieldrin. In Argentina, Canada, Chile, the Federal Republic of Germany, Hungary, and the US, its use is prohibited, with some exceptions. The use of dieldrin is restricted in India, Mauritius, Togo, and the United Kingdom. Its use in industry is prohibited in Switzerland and its manufacture and use in Japan is under government control. In Finland, the only accepted use for dieldrin is as a termiticide in one glue mixture for exported plywood. India requires registration and licences for all importation, manufacture, sale, or storage.

Momentum against organochlorine and similar molecules continued to grow internationally, leading to negotiations that matured as the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants(POPs). POPs are defined as hazardous and environmentally persistent substances which can be transported between countries by the Earth's oceans and atmosphere.

Most POPs (including dieldrin) bioaccumulate in the fatty tissues of humans and other animals. The Stockholm Convention banned twelve POPs, nicknamed "the dirty dozen". These include aldicarb, toxaphene, chlordane and heptachlor, chlordimeform, chlorobenzilate, DBCP, DDT, "drins" (aldrin, dieldrin and endrin), EDB, HCH and lindane, paraquat, parathion and methylparathion, pentachlorophenol, and 2,4,5-T. This took force on 17 May 2004. Australia ratified the Convention only three days later and became a party to it in August that year. [15] Legislation in Australia on the import, use and disposal of dieldrin and other organochlorines has been extensive and covers mainly environmental and potential health impacts on the population. [15]

Australia

The use of organochlorines in Australia was dramatically lowered between the mid-1970s and the early 1980s. The first restrictions on the use of dieldrin and related chemicals in Australia were introduced in 1961–2, with registration required for their use on produce animals, such as cattle and chickens. This coincided with increasing concerns worldwide about the long-term effects of persistent pesticides. The publication of Silent Spring (an account of the environmental and health effects of pesticides) by Rachel Carson in 1962 was a key driving force in raising this concern. The phase-out process was driven by government bans and deregistration, in turn promoted by changing public perceptions that food containing residues of these chemicals was less acceptable and possibly hazardous to health. [15]

Throughout this time, continuous pressure was maintained by relevant committees, for example the Technical Committee on Agricultural Chemicals (TCAC), to reduce approved organochlorine use. By 1981, the use of dieldrin worldwide was limited to sugarcane and bananas, and these uses were deregistered by 1985. In 1987, a nationwide recall system was put into place, and in December of that year, the government prohibited all imports of these chemicals into Australia without express ministerial approval. In 1994, the National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals published a use of organochlorines in termite control, recommending the phase-out of organochlorines used in termite control upon development of viable alternatives. The same year, the Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand decided to phase out remaining organochlorine uses by 30 June 1995, with the exception of the Northern Territory. In November 1997, the use of all organochlorines other than mirex was phased out in Australia. Remaining stocks of mirex are to be used only for contained baits for termites in plantations of young trees in the Northern Territory until stocks run out, which is expected in the near future. [15]

The recognition of negative impacts on health has stimulated the implementation of multiple legislative policies in regards to the use and disposal of organochlorine pesticides. For example, the Environment Protection (Marine) Policy 1994 became operational in May 1995 in South Australia. It dictated the acceptable concentration of toxicants such as dieldrin in marine waters and the manner in which these levels must be tested and tried. [15]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pesticide</span> Substance used to destroy pests

Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others. The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all pesticide use globally. Most pesticides are used as plant protection products, which in general protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that destroy property, cause nuisance, or spread disease, or are disease vectors. Along with these benefits, pesticides also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insecticide</span> Pesticide used against insects

Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden settings, industrial buildings, for vector control, and control of insect parasites of animals and humans.

Chlordane, or chlordan, is an organochlorine compound that was used as a pesticide. It is a white solid. In the United States, chlordane was used for termite-treatment of approximately 30 million homes until it was banned in 1988. Chlordane was banned 10 years earlier for food crops like corn and citrus, and on lawns and domestic gardens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlordecone</span> Chemical compound

Chlordecone, better known in the United States under the brand name Kepone, is an organochlorine compound and a colourless solid. It is an obsolete insecticide, now prohibited in the western world, but only after many thousands of tonnes had been produced and used. Chlordecone is a known persistent organic pollutant that was banned globally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2009.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lindane</span> Organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane

Lindane, also known as gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), gammaxene, Gammallin and benzene hexachloride (BHC), is an organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and as a pharmaceutical treatment for lice and scabies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parathion</span> Chemical compound

Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally known as "Folidol", is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. It was originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-target organisms, including humans, so its use has been banned or restricted in most countries. The basic structure is shared by parathion methyl.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pentachlorophenol</span> Chemical compound

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under many trade names. It can be found as pure PCP, or as the sodium salt of PCP, the latter of which dissolves easily in water. It can be biodegraded by some bacteria, including Sphingobium chlorophenolicum.

Organochlorine chemistry is concerned with the properties of organochlorine compounds, or organochlorides, organic compounds containing at least one covalently bonded atom of chlorine. The chloroalkane class includes common examples. The wide structural variety and divergent chemical properties of organochlorides lead to a broad range of names, applications, and properties. Organochlorine compounds have wide use in many applications, though some are of profound environmental concern, with TCDD being one of the most notorious.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persistent organic pollutant</span> Organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic and adversely affect human health and the environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diazinon</span> Chemical compound

Diazinon, a colorless to dark brown liquid, is a thiophosphoric acid ester developed in 1952 by Ciba-Geigy, a Swiss chemical company. It is a nonsystemic organophosphate insecticide formerly used to control cockroaches, silverfish, ants, and fleas in residential, non-food buildings. Diazinon was heavily used during the 1970s and early 1980s for general-purpose gardening use and indoor pest control. A bait form was used to control scavenger wasps in the western U.S. Diazinon is used in flea collars for domestic pets in Australia and New Zealand. Diazinon is a major component in the "Golden Fleece" brand sheep dip. Residential uses of diazinon were outlawed in the U.S. in 2004 because of human health risks but it is still approved for agricultural uses. An emergency antidote is atropine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxaphene</span> Chemical compound

Toxaphene was an insecticide used primarily for cotton in the southern United States during the late 1960s and the 1970s. Toxaphene is a mixture of over 670 different chemicals and is produced by reacting chlorine gas with camphene. It can be most commonly found as a yellow to amber waxy solid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heptachlor</span> Chemical compound

Heptachlor is an organochlorine compound that was used as an insecticide. Usually sold as a white or tan powder, heptachlor is one of the cyclodiene insecticides. In 1962, Rachel Carson's Silent Spring questioned the safety of heptachlor and other chlorinated insecticides. Due to its highly stable structure, heptachlor can persist in the environment for decades. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has limited the sale of heptachlor products to the specific application of fire ant control in underground transformers. The amount that can be present in different foods is regulated.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aldrin</span> Chemical compound

Aldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used until the 1990s, when it was banned in most countries. Aldrin is a member of the so-called "classic organochlorines" (COC) group of pesticides. COCs enjoyed a very sharp rise in popularity during and after World War II. Other noteworthy examples of COCs include dieldrin and DDT. After research showed that organochlorines can be highly toxic to the ecosystem through bioaccumulation, most were banned from use. Before the ban, it was heavily used as a pesticide to treat seed and soil. Aldrin and related "cyclodiene" pesticides became notorious as persistent organic pollutants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endosulfan</span> Chemical compound

Endosulfan is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that is being phased out globally. It became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor. Because of its threats to human health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture and use of endosulfan was negotiated under the Stockholm Convention in April 2011. The ban took effect in mid-2012, with certain uses exempted for five additional years. More than 80 countries, including the European Union, Australia, New Zealand, several West African nations, the United States, Brazil, and Canada had already banned it or announced phase-outs by the time the Stockholm Convention ban was agreed upon. It is still used extensively in India and China despite laws against its use. It is also used in a few other countries. It is produced by the Israeli firm Makhteshim Agan and several manufacturers in India and China. On May 13, 2011, the India Supreme Court ordered a ban on the production and sale of endosulfan in India, pending further notice.

Pesticide residue refers to the pesticides that may remain on or in food, after they are applied to food crops. The maximum allowable levels of these residues in foods are stipulated by regulatory bodies in many countries. Regulations such as pre-harvest intervals also prevent harvest of crop or livestock products if recently treated in order to allow residue concentrations to decrease over time to safe levels before harvest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endrin</span> Chemical compound

Endrin is an organochlorine compound with the chemical formula C12H8Cl6O that was first produced in 1950 by Shell and Velsicol Chemical Corporation. It was primarily used as an insecticide, as well as a rodenticide and piscicide. It is a colourless, odorless solid, although commercial samples are often off-white. Endrin was manufactured as an emulsifiable solution known commercially as Endrex. The compound became infamous as a persistent organic pollutant and for this reason it is banned in many countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mirex</span> Chemical compound

Mirex is an organochloride that was commercialized as an insecticide and later banned because of its impact on the environment. This white crystalline odorless solid is a derivative of cyclopentadiene. It was popularized to control fire ants but by virtue of its chemical robustness and lipophilicity it was recognized as a bioaccumulative pollutant. The spread of the red imported fire ant was encouraged by the use of mirex, which also kills native ants that are highly competitive with the fire ants. The United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited its use in 1976. It is prohibited by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methoxychlor</span> Synthetic organochloride insecticide, now obsolete.

Methoxychlor is a synthetic organochloride insecticide, now obsolete. Tradenames for methoxychlor include Chemform, Maralate, Methoxo, Methoxcide, Metox, and Moxie.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexachlorocyclopentadiene</span> Chemical compound

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene (HCCPD), also known as C-56, Graphlox, and HRS 1655, is an organochlorine compound with the formula C5Cl6. It is a precursor to pesticides, flame retardants, and dyes. It is a colourless liquid, although commercial samples appear lemon-yellow liquid sometimes with a bluish vapour. Many of its derivatives proved to be highly controversial, as studies showed them to be persistent organic pollutants. An estimated 270,000 tons were produced until 1976, and smaller amounts continue to be produced today.

Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances (PBTs) are a class of compounds that have high resistance to degradation from abiotic and biotic factors, high mobility in the environment and high toxicity. Because of these factors PBTs have been observed to have a high order of bioaccumulation and biomagnification, very long retention times in various media, and widespread distribution across the globe. Most PBTs in the environment are either created through industry or are unintentional byproducts.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0206". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
  2. 1 2 "Dieldrin". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
  3. 1 2 Jorgensen, JL. (2001). "Aldrin and dieldrin: A review of research on their production environmental deposition and fate, bioaccumulation, toxicology, and epidemiology in the United States". Environmental Health Perspectives. 109 (Suppl.) (Suppl 1): 113–39. Bibcode:2001EnvHP.109S.113J. doi:10.1289/ehp.01109s1113. PMC   1240548 . PMID   11250811.
  4. ↑ "Aldrin/Dieldrin | ToxFAQs™ | ATSDR". wwwn.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-02.
  5. ↑ Andersen HR, Vinggaard AM, Rasmussen TH, Gjermandsen IM, Bonefeld-Jørgensen EC (February 2002). "Effects of currently used pesticides in assays for estrogenicity, androgenicity, and aromatase activity in vitro". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 179 (1): 1–12. Bibcode:2002ToxAP.179....1R. doi:10.1006/taap.2001.9347. PMID   11884232.
  6. ↑ Jubb AH (1975). Basic Organic Chemistry, Part 5 Industrial products . London: Wiley. ISBN   978-0-471-85014-4.
  7. ↑ International Program of Chemical Safety (1989). Aldrin and Dieldrin, Environmental Health Criteria 91. Geneva: WHO. ISBN   92-4-154291-8.
  8. ↑ International Agency for Research on Cancer (2019). Aldrin and dieldrin, in: Pentachlorophenol and Some Related Compounds. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 117 (PDF). Lyon: IARC/WHO Press. pp. 193–322. ISBN   978-92-832-0184-7.
  9. ↑ Pang S, Lin Z, Li J, Zhang Y, Mishra S, Bhatt P, Chen S (2022-03-29). "Microbial Degradation of Aldrin and Dieldrin: Mechanisms and Biochemical Pathways". Frontiers in Microbiology. 13: 713375. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.713375 . PMC   9002305 . PMID   35422769.
  10. ↑ Orris P, Chary LK, Perry K, Asbury J (2000). "Aldrin and Dieldrin". Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and human health. A Publication of the World Federation of Public Health Association's Persistent Organic Pollutant Project. WFPHA.
  11. 1 2 Toxicological Profile for Aldrin and Dieldrin. Atlanta: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2022. pp. 94–98. PMID   37040456 . Retrieved 12 August 2023.
  12. ↑ Matsumura, Fumio (1985). Toxicology of insecticides (2nd ed.). Plenum Press. pp. 240–242. ISBN   0-30641979-3.
  13. ↑ Klein, A K; Link, J D; Ives, N F (1968). "Isolation and Purification of Metabolites Found in the Urine of Male Rats Fed Aldrin and Dieldrin". Journal of AOAC International. 51 (4): 895–898. doi: 10.1093/jaoac/51.4.895 .
  14. ↑ Environment Canada. "Descriptions of some toxic contaminants found in the Pacific and Yukon Region". Ecoinfo. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "Dieldrin and Breast Cancer: a Literature Review" (PDF). 10 November 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
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