Brugmansia

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Brugmansia
Brugmansia.jpg
Brugmansia 'Feingold'
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Subfamily: Solanoideae
Tribe: Datureae
Genus: Brugmansia
Pers.
Species

See text

Synonyms

MethysticodendronR.E.Schult.
PseudodaturaZijp [1]

Brugmansia is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. [2] They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common name of angel's trumpets, adjacent to the nickname devil's trumpets of the closely related genus Datura .

Contents

Brugmansia species are among the most toxic of ornamental plants, containing tropane alkaloids of the type also responsible for the toxicity and deliriant effects of both jimsonweed and the infamous deadly nightshade. [2] [3] All seven species are known only in cultivation or as escapees from cultivation, and no wild plants have ever been confirmed. They are therefore listed as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN Red List, although they are popular ornamental plants and still exist wild outside their native range as introduced species. [4] It is suspected that their extinction in the wild is due to the extinction of some animal which previously dispersed the seeds, [5] with human cultivation having ensured the genus's continued survival.

Description

Brugmansia sanguinea Brugmansia bicolor.jpg
Brugmansia sanguinea

Brugmansia are large shrubs or small trees, with semi-woody, often many-branched trunks. They can reach heights of 3–11 m (10–36 ft). The leaves are alternately arranged along the stems, generally large, 10–30 cm (4–12 in) long and 4–18 cm (2–7 in) across, with an entire or coarsely toothed margin, and are often covered with fine hairs. The name "angel's trumpet" refers to the large, pendulous, trumpet-shaped flowers, 14–50 cm (6–20 in) long and 10–35 cm (4–14 in) across at the opening. They come in shades of white, yellow, pink, orange, green, or red. Most have a strong, pleasing fragrance that is most noticeable in the evening. Flowers may be single, double, or more.

Taxonomy

Linnaeus first classified these plants as part of Datura with his 1753 description of "Datura arborea" . Then in 1805, C. H. Persoon transferred them into a separate genus, Brugmansia, named for Dutch naturalist Sebald Justinus Brugmans. [4] For another 168 years, various authors placed them back and forth between the genera of Brugmansia and Datura, until in 1973, with his detailed comparison of morphological differences, T.E. Lockwood settled them as separate genera, where they have stayed unchallenged since. [6]

Currently, there are seven recognized species: [7]

SectionImageScientific nameDistribution
Brugmansia 2007 brugmansia aurea.jpg Brugmansia aurea Lagerh.Andes - Venezuela to Ecuador
Borrachero (Brugmansia x insignis) (15608067765).jpg Brugmansia insignis (Barb.Rodr.) Lockwood ex R.E. R.E.Schult. Eastern Andes foothills - Colombia to Bolivia and occasionally Brazil
Angel Trumpets -- Brugmansia suaveolens.jpg Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Sweet Southeast Brazil
Brugmansia versicolor - Talcott Greenhouse - Mount Holyoke College - DSC04504.JPG Brugmansia versicolor Lagerh.Ecuador
Sphaerocarpium B. arborea flor-1.JPG Brugmansia arborea (L.) Sweet Andes - Ecuador to northern Chile
Brugmansia sanguinea 2 flowers.jpg Brugmansia sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D.Don Andes - Colombia to northern Chile
Brugmansia vulcanicola.jpg Brugmansia vulcanicola (A.S.Barclay) R.E.Schult. Andes - Colombia to Ecuador

These species are then divided into two natural, genetically isolated groups. [8] Brugmansia section Brugmansia (the warm-growing group) includes the species aurea, insignis, sauveolens, and versicolor. Brugmansia section Sphaerocarpium (the cold group) includes the species arborea, sanguinea, and vulcanicola. [7]

Two of these species were challenged by Lockwood in his 1973 doctoral thesis. [9] First, Brugmansia vulcanicola was said to be a subspecies of B. sanguinea, but this was refuted by Lockwood's former mentor, R. E. Schultes in 1977. [10] Second, Lockwood proposed that the species B. insignis was instead a hybrid of the combination (B. suaveolens x B. versicolor) x B. suaveolens. This was later disproved by crossbreeding experiments done by the Preissels, published in 1997. [4]

Distribution and habitat

Brugmansia are native to tropical regions of South America, along the Andes from Venezuela to northern Chile, and also in south-eastern Brazil. [4] They are grown as ornamental container plants worldwide, and have become naturalized in isolated tropical areas around the globe, including within North America, Africa, Australia, and Asia. [11] [12] [13] [14]

Ecology

Most Brugmansia are fragrant in the evenings to attract pollinating moths. [15] One species lacking scent, the red-flowered Brugmansia sanguinea , is pollinated by long-billed hummingbirds. [4] Brugmansia have two main stages to their life cycle. In the initial vegetative stage the young seedling grows straight up on usually a single stalk, until it reaches its first main fork at 80–150 cm (2.6–4.9 ft) high. It will not flower until after it has reached this fork, and then only on new growth above the fork. Cuttings taken from the lower vegetative region must also grow to a similar height before flowering, but cuttings from the upper flowering region will often flower at a very low height. [4]

One interesting example of plant/animal interaction involves the butterfly Placidula euryanassa , which uses Brugmansia suaveolens as one of its main larval foods. It has been shown that these can sequester the plant's tropane alkaloids and store them through the pupal stage on to the adult butterfly, where they are then used as a defense mechanism, making themselves less palatable to vertebrate predators. [16]

Brugmansia seed dispersal was probably formerly accomplished by mammalian megafauna, extinct since the Pleistocene. Brugmansia has long been extinct in the wild as their fruits now shrivel on the plants without progeny. [17] They have been maintained in cultivation as a source of psychotropic drugs, following the loss of their evolutionary seed dispersal partner by humans. [18]

Historical uses

Urarina shaman, 1988. The Urarina use Brugmansia in their rituals. Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg
Urarina shaman, 1988. The Urarina use Brugmansia in their rituals.

Brugmansia are most often grown today as flowering ornamental plants.

Brugmansia contains deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids (atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine) which cause delirium and hallucinations. [2] In modern medicine, these tropane alkaloids found in Brugmansia and other related members of Solanaceae have proven medical value for their spasmolytic, anti-asthmatic, anticholinergic, narcotic, and anesthetic properties, although many of these alkaloids, or their equivalents, are now artificially synthesized. [19]

Brugmansia species have also traditionally been used in many South American indigenous cultures in medical preparations and as an entheogen in religious and spiritual ceremonies. [20] Medicinally, they have mostly been used externally as part of a poultice, tincture, ointment, or where the leaves are directly applied transdermally to the skin. Traditional external uses have included the treating of aches and pains, dermatitis, orchitis, arthritis, rheumatism, headaches, infections, and as an anti-inflammatory. They have been used internally much more rarely due to the inherent dangers of ingestion. Internal uses, in highly diluted preparations, and often as a portion of a larger mix, have included treatments for stomach and muscle ailments, as a decongestant, to induce vomiting, to expel worms and parasites, and as a sedative. [21] [22] [23] [24]

Several South American cultures have used Brugmansia species as a treatment for unruly children, so that they might be admonished directly by their ancestors in the spirit world, and thereby become more compliant. Mixed with maize beer and tobacco leaves, it has been used to drug wives and slaves before they were buried alive with their dead lord. [21] [25] [26]

In the Northern Peruvian Andes, shamans (curanderos) traditionally used Brugmansia species for initiation, divination, and black magic rituals. [21] In some Latin American countries such as Colombia and Peru, members of the genus Brugmansia are reportedly used by malevolent sorcerers or "bad shamans" in some ayahuasca brews in attempt to take advantage of tourists. [27] The species that are typically used for these purposes include Brugmansia suaveolens and Brugmansia arborea among others. [28]

Toxicity

All parts of Brugmansia are potentially poisonous, with the seeds and leaves being especially dangerous. [23] [29] Brugmansia are rich in scopolamine (hyoscine), hyoscyamine, and several other tropane alkaloids which can lead to anticholinergic toxidrome and delirium. [30] Effects of ingestion can include paralysis of smooth muscles, confusion, tachycardia, dry mouth, constipation, tremors, migraine headaches, poor coordination, delusions, visual and auditory hallucinations, mydriasis, rapid onset cycloplegia, and death. [31] [32] [33]

The hallucinogenic effects of Brugmansia were described in the journal Pathology as "terrifying rather than pleasurable". [34] The author Christina Pratt, in An Encyclopedia of Shamanism, says that "Brugmansia induces a powerful trance with violent and unpleasant effects, sickening after effects, and at times temporary insanity". [23] These hallucinations are often characterized by complete loss of awareness that one is hallucinating, disconnection from reality (psychosis), and amnesia of the episode, such as one example reported in European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience of a young man who amputated his own penis and tongue after drinking only one cup of Brugmansia sanguinea tea. [35]

In 1994 in Florida, 112 people were admitted to hospitals after ingesting Brugmansia, [36] leading one municipality to prohibit the purchase, sale, or cultivation of Brugmansia plants. [4] [37] [38] The concentrations of alkaloids in all parts of the plant differ markedly. They even vary with the seasons and the level of hydration, so it is nearly impossible to determine a safe level of alkaloid exposure. [31]

In 2022 The BMJ reported the following case: A woman in her 50s presented to the emergency department with blurred vision and pupil asymmetry for 3 hours. The right pupil was dilated, while the left was normal. A detailed history revealed that she had been pruning plants in her garden, when the blurred vision started. She did not complain of any other symptom. When all tests proved normal, she was finally asked to provide a photo of her garden. Brugmansia suaveolens (angel's trumpet) was identified in the picture. On asking specific history, she reported rubbing her right eye after touching the plant's leaves and flowers. [39] It shows that Brugmansia is highly toxic. Even touching the leaves and flowers can transfer sufficient amounts of active principles to the hand.

Cultivation

Brugmansia are easily grown in a moist, fertile, well-drained soil, in sun to part shade, in frost-free climates. They begin to flower in mid to late spring in warm climates and continue into the fall (autumn), often continuing as late as early winter in warm conditions. In cool winters, outdoor plants need protection from frost, [40] but the roots are hardier, and may resprout in late spring. The species from the higher elevations, in B. section Sphaerocarpium, prefer moderate temperatures and cool nights, and may not flower if temperatures are very hot. Most Brugmansia may be propagated easily by rooting 10–20 cm (4–8 in) cuttings taken from the end of a branch during the summer. Several hybrids and numerous cultivars have been developed for use as ornamental plants. B. × candida is a hybrid between B. aurea and B. versicolor; B. × flava is a hybrid between B. arborea and B. sanguinea; and B. × cubensis [8] is a hybrid between B. suaveolens, B. versicolor, and B. aurea. There are cultivars producing double flowers, and some with variegated leaves. The cultivars B. × candida 'Grand Marnier' [41] and 'Knightii' [42] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. [43]

Related Research Articles

<i>Datura</i> Genus of poisonous, potentially psychoactive plants

Datura is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae). They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets. Other English common names include moonflower, devil's weed, and hell's bells. All species of Datura are extremely poisonous and psychoactive, especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression, arrhythmias, fever, delirium, hallucinations, anticholinergic syndrome, psychosis, and death if taken internally.

<i>Datura stramonium</i> Species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae

Datura stramonium, known by the common names thorn apple, jimsonweed, devil's snare, or devil's trumpet, is a poisonous flowering plant of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It is a species belonging to the Datura genus and Daturae tribe. Its likely origin was in Central America, and it has been introduced in many world regions. It is an aggressive invasive weed in temperate climates and tropical climates across the world. D. stramonium has frequently been employed in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments. It has also been used as a hallucinogen, taken entheogenically to cause intense, sacred or occult visions. It is unlikely ever to become a major drug of abuse owing to effects upon both mind and body frequently perceived as being highly unpleasant, giving rise to a state of profound and long-lasting disorientation or delirium with a potentially fatal outcome. It contains tropane alkaloids which are responsible for the psychoactive effects, and may be severely toxic.

<i>Datura wrightii</i> Species of plant in southwestern North America

Datura wrightii, commonly known as sacred datura, is a poisonous perennial plant species and ornamental flower of the family Solanaceae native to the Southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. It is sometimes used as a hallucinogen due to its psychoactive alkaloids. D. wrightii is classified as an anticholinergic deliriant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deliriant</span> Class of psychoactive drugs

Deliriants are a subclass of hallucinogen. The term was coined in the early 1980s to distinguish these drugs from psychedelics such as LSD and dissociatives such as ketamine, due to their primary effect of causing delirium, as opposed to the more lucid and less disturbed states produced by other types of hallucinogens. The term generally refers to anticholinergic drugs, which are substances that inhibit the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Common examples of deliriants include plants of the genera Datura and Brugmansia as well as higher than recommended dosages of diphenhydramine (Benadryl). A number of plant deliriants such as that of the Solanaceae family, particularly in the Americas have been used by some indigenous cultures to reach delirious and altered states for traditions or rituals, such as rites of passage, divination or communicating with the ancestors. Despite their long history of use, deliriants are the least-studied class of hallucinogens in terms of their behavioral and neurological effects.

<i>Datura innoxia</i> Species of plant

Datura innoxia, known as pricklyburr, recurved thorn-apple, downy thorn-apple, Indian-apple, lovache, moonflower, nacazcul, toloatzin, toloaxihuitl, tolguache or toloache, is a species of flowering plant in the family Solanaceae. It is more rarely called sacred datura, a common name which is applied more often to the closely related Datura wrightii. It is native to the Southwestern United States, Central and South America, and introduced in Africa, Asia, Australia and Europe. The scientific name is often cited as D. innoxia. When English botanist Philip Miller first described the species in 1768, he misspelled the Latin word innoxia (inoffensive) when naming it D. inoxia. The name Datura meteloides was for some time erroneously applied to some members of the species, but that name has now been abandoned.

<i>Datura discolor</i> Species of plant

Datura discolor, also called the desert thorn-apple, is an herbaceous annual plant native to the Sonoran Desert of western North America, where it grows in sandy soils and washes. All parts of the plant contain a mix of alkaloids that are potentially lethal when enough is ingested. Deaths from careless recreational use of Datura and related plants are frequently reported.

<i>Brugmansia aurea</i> Species of flowering plant

Brugmansia aurea, the golden angel's trumpet, is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, endemic to Ecuador. Since March 2014, it has been listed as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN but before that, it was listed as Vulnerable.

<i>Brugmansia versicolor</i> Species of flowering plant

Brugmansia versicolor is a species of plant in the family Solanaceae, commonly known as “angel’s trumpets”. They are endemic to Ecuador. Since March 2014, they have been listed as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN.

<i>Datura leichhardtii</i> Species of plant

Datura leichhardtii is a species of thorn apple in the genus Datura. In 1844, Ludwig Leichhardt discovered this species in Australia. Ferdinand von Mueller gave it the name Datura leichhardtii when he published his first description of it in 1855.

<i>Brugmansia suaveolens</i> Species of plant

Brugmansia suaveolens, Brazil's white angel trumpet, also known as angel's tears and snowy angel's trumpet, is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, native to south eastern Brazil, but thought to be extinct in the wild. Like several other species of Brugmansia, it exists as an introduced species in areas outside its native range. It is a tender shrub or small tree with large semi-evergreen leaves and fragrant yellow or white trumpet-shaped flowers.

<i>Datura quercifolia</i> Species of plant

Datura quercifolia, commonly known as the oak-leaved thorn-apple, is a small shrub in the genus Datura that is native to Mexico and the Southwestern United States. It grows equally well in dry and moist soils and requires full sun. It contains a mix of alkaloids that are poisonous and can be potentially lethal when ingested.

<i>Datura ceratocaula</i> Species of plant

Datura ceratocaula is a species of Datura. It is weed-like in its natural habitat, but is grown in gardens and yards as an ornamental plant. The flower has a sweet smell. It is an annual plant that originally came from Mexico.

<i>Datura ferox</i> Species of plant

Datura ferox, commonly known as long spined thorn apple and fierce thornapple, as well as Angel's-trumpets, is a species of Datura. Like all such species, every part of the plant contains deadly toxins that can kill animals that ingest it. Its fruit, red-brown when ripe, has unusually long thorns or spikes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tropane alkaloid</span> Class of chemical compounds

Tropane alkaloids are a class of bicyclic [3.2.1] alkaloids and secondary metabolites that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. Tropane alkaloids occur naturally in many members of the plant family Solanaceae. Certain tropane alkaloids such as cocaine and scopolamine are notorious for their psychoactive effects, related usage and cultural associations. Particular tropane alkaloids such as these have pharmacological properties and can act as anticholinergics or stimulants.

<i>Brugmansia arborea</i> Species of plant

Brugmansia arborea, the angel's trumpet, is a species of flowering plant in the family Solanaceae. The IUCN has classed Brugmansia arborea as Extinct in the Wild.

<i>Brugmansia sanguinea</i> Species of plant

Brugmansia sanguinea, the red angel's trumpet, is a species of South American flowering shrub or small tree belonging to the genus Brugmansia in tribe Datureae of subfamily Solanoideae of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It has been cultivated and used as an entheogen for shamanic purposes by the South American Natives for centuries - possibly even millennia.

<i>Brugmansia insignis</i> Species of plant

Brugmansia insignis is a South American species of angel's trumpet with large, fragrant flowers. The IUCN has listed this species as Extinct in the Wild, although like the other members of its genus its survival has been ensured by its popularity as an ornamental plant.

<i>Brugmansia vulcanicola</i> Species of flowering plant

Brugmansia vulcanicola, is a shrub or small tree belonging to the genus Brugmansia of tribe Datureae in subfamily Solanoideae of the nightshade family, Solanaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meteloidine</span> Chemical compound

Meteloidine is an alkaloid found in some Brugmansia and Datura species. Its also found in Erythroxylum australe and is said to be cocaine-like alkaloid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solanaceae</span> Family of flowering plants that includes tomatoes, potatoes and tobacco

The Solanaceae, or the nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. Many members of the family contain potent alkaloids, and some are highly toxic, but many—including tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell and chili peppers—are used as food. The family belongs to the order Solanales, in the asterid group and class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons). The Solanaceae consists of about 98 genera and some 2,700 species, with a great diversity of habitats, morphology and ecology.

References

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