Hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms, which may also be known as "xiao ren ren" mushrooms, are bolete mushrooms that produce hallucinogenic effects and are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] They have been reported in China and Papua New Guinea. [1] [3] [4] The exact species of the mushrooms, their active constituents, and their mechanism of action have all yet to be fully clarified. [2] Other much more well-known hallucinogenic mushrooms include psilocybin mushrooms and Amanita muscaria mushrooms. [3] [7] [8] [9]
Certain blue-staining edible boletes in the Yunnan province of China are said to be hallucinogenic mushrooms. [1] [5] [6] [4] They become non-hallucinogenic with proper cooking (for at least 15 to 25 minutes), which presumably destroys their active constituents, and are commonly consumed in well-cooked form as food in the province. [1] [5] There have been cases of unintended hallucinogenic mushroom poisonings when the mushrooms are accidentally undercooked or are eaten in large quantities. [1] [5] However, it has been suggested that some level of cooking might be required for the mushrooms to become hallucinogenic. [5] The mushrooms are said to make people see the "xiao ren ren", meaning "lots of little men or people", and these hallucinations are said to be reminiscent of Lilliputian hallucinations. [1] [3] [4] [5] Aside from "xiao ren ren" hallucinations, they are also reported to make people see walls moving and shifting, geometrical patterns, and strange shapes and object transformations, to make everything appear very beautiful, and to produce other effects such as gastrointestinal distress. [1] [5] [4]
The exact bolete species that produce hallucinogenic effects are not entirely clear, at least as of 2008, due to difficulty in identification, and related to the fact that the people in the region are known to eat hundreds of different mushroom species. [1] [5] However, popular edible bolete species in the province include Butyriboletus roseoflavus , Lanmaoa asiatica , Sutorius magnificus , [4] and Rubroboletus sinicus . The active constituents of the mushrooms likewise have not yet been identified and are unknown. [5] [2] The phenomenon of hallucinogenic bolete mushroom intoxication in China is said to be well-known and to be frequently covered in local and national media in the country. [1]
A case series of Boletus edulis (porcini) mushrooms causing visual and auditory hallucinations in two women was published in the Chinese literature by a Beijing hospital in 2014. [1] [10] The symptoms onset after 6 to 12 hours, resulted in the women going to the hospital after 12 hours, and lasted for up to 5 days. [1] [10] Similarly, in 2016, a case report was published of hallucinogenic mushroom poisoning in a Hong Kong woman who had consumed a bolete that had been purchased in the Yunnan province. [1] [11] Her symptoms included dizziness, malaise, and visual hallucinations. [1] [11] They onset 10 hours after consumption and resolved after 48 hours. [1] [11] The mushroom was identified as Tylopilus nigerrimus and is generally considered inedible. [1] [11] This was the first report of hallucinogenic effects with this mushroom species in the English-language literature. [1] [11] Larger series of poisonings, including hallucinations, have also been reported in 2022 and 2023. [1] [12] [13] [14] Lanmaoa asiatica has been said to be one of the more frequently implicated bolete mushrooms in producing hallucinogenic effects. [1] [12] [13] [14] Other reportedly implicated species have included Butyriboletus roseoflavus and Neoboletus magnificus , and some of their constituents have been characterized. [1]
Certain bolete and russule mushrooms have been used in shamanic practices in Papua New Guinea by the Kuma people and other ethnic groups and have been reported to cause "madness". [3] [1] However, findings are conflicting and this area is controversial. [3] [1] It has been theorized that the mushrooms may indeed be psychoactive or that the "madness" may simply be akin to "mass hysteria". [1] Lilliputian hallucinations have also been reported with the possibly hallucinogenic mushrooms of Papua New Guinea. [1] Various mushroom species have been reported to have been consumed by the Kuma people, including notably Boletus manicus and Tylopilus nigerrimus . [1] Psilocybe mushrooms are also present in these areas and known by the locals, but are considered inedible and are not consumed. [1]
It has been reported that B. manicus specifically may be a hallucinogenic mushroom consumed by people in Papua New Guinea. [15] [16] However, this topic is controversial, and available findings are mixed. [16] Roger Heim, the discoverer of B. manicus, reported self-experiments with the mushroom that resulted in strange dreams, but clearly perceptible psychoactive effects were not experienced. [1] B. manicus is known to contain trace amounts of three unidentified indolic compounds. [15] [16] [2] These were detected by Albert Hofmann, but the quantities were too low to allow for chemical analysis and identification. [15] [5] [2] The indolic compounds would need to be extremely potent, on par with LSD, to account for the claimed hallucinogenic effects of B. manicus. [15] [16] [5] The hypothesis that these indolic compounds are indeed highly potent hallucinogens has been treated both seriously, for instance by Heim, and critiqued and discounted, for instance by Jonathan Ott. [15] [16]
Boletus curtisii is known to contain β-carboline-1-propanoic acid and certain other β-carbolines. [2] [17] [18]
Table 2. Classification of psychoactive mushrooms, bioactive markers, and psychotropic mechanism according to Guzman et al. [42]. [...] Group: 4. Psychoactive Markers: Indole-type alkaloids. Scaffold: Not fully identified. Example: Chemical studies are still required. Psychotropic Mechanism: Not elucidated yet. Representative Mushroom Genus: Boletus, Heimiella, Russula and some gasteromycetes. [...] Finally, in the fourth group, Guzman suggested to gather basidiomycetes of the Russula, Boletus, and Heimiella genera, as well as other gasteroid mushrooms, which are recognized as sacred in different tribes worldwide but lack accurate chemical identification of their psychoactive compounds. In this context, chemical and pharmacological studies featuring these basidiomycetes are still required to have their psychoactive markers identified. [...] Table 3. Structure, sources, and extraction methods of some representative mushroom-derived indole alkaloids. [...] Indole Type: β-carbolines. Alkaloid: β-Carboline-1-propanoic acid. Fungal Sources: Boletus curtisii and Cortinarius brunneus. Extraction Methods: [...] Ref.: [55,65].
Concerning the bolets and russules (Figs. 4 and 5), these mushrooms were used in Papua New Guinea some time ago, in some shamanic practices.12,13 They produced some stages of madness in the people12–14; however, we have but little and confusing information on them, even though the first works began in 1947.14 We also have information on some edible bolets from China,15,16 where some bolets are sold in the markets, but with the advice from the sellers, that it is necessary to cook the mushrooms well. In some reports, the raw mushrooms produced visions of some little men or soldiers marching on the table.16 [...] Some bolets and russules were used in Papua New Guinea,4,12–14 and certainly edible bolets producing hallucinations were used in China if they were not well cooked.15,16 [...] Of these works, that by Dikov described some anthropoid petroglyphs in Siberia, which seem to be representations of the use of A. muscaria by the Siberians. However, Guzmán studied copies of those petroglyphs shown by Samorini33 and observed some isolated fungoid figures that are similar to some bolets. If this is true, we have an interesting connection with those bolets used in Papua New Guinea and China,15,16 which needs more study.
Some boletes known as "jian-shou-qing" (turning blue when bruised or cut) are considered hallucinogenic, causing visions that Yunnan's people call "xiao-ren-ren" (little men or little people, similar to the "Lilliputian hallucinations" found in the Kuma people from New Guinea) (Arora 2008). Among these boletes are Butyriboletus roseoflavus, Lanmaoa asiatica, and Sutorius magnificus, all commonly collected in Yunnan and even more popular than porcini (Fig. 6.10) (Wang et al. 2004). Though some of these species can cause gastrointestinal distress, the local people continue to consume them (Arora 2008).
[Translated:] Both patients were young women who came to our hospital for treatment in July 2011 and May 2012 respectively because of "auditory and visual hallucinations 12 hours after eating porcini mushrooms". Both patients developed symptoms 6 to 12 hours after eating stir-fried porcini mushrooms (about 250-500 g). One patient presented with "Lilliputian hallucinations" accompanied by auditory hallucinations, saying that she felt like she had entered Lilliputian, where there were little people less than 33 cm tall everywhere, with various faces, wearing red and green, lively and extremely naughty, and her voices could be heard. The mushrooms around her were colorful. The patient thought that world was very beautiful. Because she was afraid that these images would disappear, she kept chanting Buddhist scriptures, shouting, and staying up all night. The other patient had visual and auditory hallucinations, saw many small animals such as rabbits and squirrels around her out of thin air, heard their cries, felt that these small animals were going to bite her, slapped her hands in the air, was nervous and afraid, and dared not fall asleep. She had a healthy past and denied exposure to toxins and substance abuse. The vital signs of the two patients were stable, and the gastrointestinal symptoms were mild (nausea, stomach discomfort); no positive signs were found in the neurological and physical examinations. No obvious abnormal results were found in the auxiliary examinations. One of the patients had a blood sample sent to the Chinese People's Liberation Army Institute of Toxicology for serum toxicology examination, which showed that the concentration of tramadol in the serum was 0.5 ug/ml, which was a toxic dose. The two patients were given gastric lavage, fluid replacement and other treatments on the day of consultation, and haloperidol 2.5-10 mg/d was injected intramuscularly. After 5 days, the mental symptoms disappeared.
β-Carboline-1-propanoic acid (79) and its methylated derivative (80) have been identified in specimens of Boletus curtisii, a mushroom that forms a mycorrhizal relationship with hardwood and conifer trees across North America.94 [...] it has been suggested this molecule [(79)] could interact with both the benzodiazepine and GABA receptors.96 [...] The aforementioned Boletus curtisii produces an interesting collection of sulfur-containing β-carboline derivatives.94 The bright yellow coloration of this species has been attributed to the optically active, sulfoxide-containing pigments curtisin (87) and 9-deoxycurtisin (88).94 These compounds are derived from canthin-6-one (89), which was also identified in the extracts of B. curtisii along with four thiomethyl β-carboline derivatives (90−93).94