Galerina

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Galerina
Galerina marginata.jpg
Galerina marginata
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Hymenogastraceae
Genus: Galerina
Earle (1909)
Type species
Galerina vittiformis
(Fr.) Singer (1950)
Subgenera

Galerina  Kühner
Naucoriopsis Kühner
Tubariopsis Kühner

Contents

Synonyms [1]
  • Galerula P.Karst. (1879)
  • PholidotopsisEarle (1909)
  • VelomycenaPilát (1953)

Galerina is a genus of small brown-spore saprobic mushroom-bearing fungi, with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean. [2] [3] The genus is most noted for some extremely poisonous species which are occasionally confused with hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe . Galerina mushrooms are typically small and hygrophanous, with a slender and brittle stem. They are often found growing on wood, and when on the ground have a preference for mossy habitats.

Galerina means helmet-like. [4]

Taxonomic definition

The genus Galerina is defined as small mushrooms of mycenoid stature, that is, roughly similar in form to Mycena species: a small conical to bell-shaped cap, and gills attached to a long and slender cartilaginous stem. Species have a pileipellis that is a cutis, and ornamented spores that are brown in deposit, where the spore ornamentation comes from an extra spore covering.

Description

Galerina patagonica at Marriott Falls Track, Tasmania, Australia Galerina patagonica 5927.jpg
Galerina patagonica at Marriott Falls Track, Tasmania, Australia

Galerina fruiting bodies are typically small, undistinguished mushrooms with a typical "little brown mushroom" morphology and a yellow-brown, light brown to cinnamon-brown spore print. The pileus is typically glabrous and often hygrophanous, and a cortina-type veil is present in young specimens of roughly half of recognized species, though it sometimes disappears as the mushroom ages in many of these species.[ citation needed ] Microscopically, they are highly variable as well, though most species have spores that are ornamented, lack a germ pore, and have a plage. Many species also have characteristic tibiiform cystidia. However, there are many exceptions, and many species of Galerina lack one or more of these microscopic characteristics. Ecologically, all Galerina are saprobic, growing in habitats like rotting wood or in moss. [2]

The spores of Galerina feature an ornamentation that comes from the outer layer of the spore breaking up on maturity to produce either warts, wrinkles or "ears", flaps of material loosened from where the spore was attached to the basidia. This outer layer of the spore often is not complete, but has a clear patch in many species just above the attachment, this clear patch is called a plage. This plage is not evident in all species, and the spore covering does not always breakup in all species, making it sometimes difficult to correctly determine a mushroom of this genus.

The specific features that define the genus require a microscope to confirm. In the wild it can be difficult to determine a Galerina from a number of similar genera, such as Pholiota , Tubaria , Conocybe , Pholiotina , Agrocybe , Gymnopilus , Phaeogalera and Psilocybe . For the most part, Galerinas will be found associated with moss, and this can separate out the genus in nature fairly well. But this identification is more difficult in the section Naucoriopsis, which does not associate with moss, and is a decomposer of wood.

Phaeogalera is a genus that was segregated from Galerina by Robert Kühner. [5]

Phylogenetics

The genus Galerina has recently been found to be polyphyletic, [2] consisting of at least three unrelated clades, although not all species were studied and for most currently recognized species is uncertain still in which they belong. Each of these clades corresponds to a subgenus of Galerina, as outlined by Kühner. [5] The great diversity of micromorphology found in Galerina is probably due to the polyphyly of the genus.

Selected species

Galerina vittiformis is the type species of the genus Galerina. This species is common[ where? ] in beds of damp moss (along with many other species of Galerina). There are a number of variations of this species that have been named over the years: var. vittiformis f. vittiformis is a 2-spored species; var. vittiformis f. tetrasporis is a 4-spored form; var. pachyspora has been collected on Macquarie Island. [3]

Galerina patagonica has a Gondwanan distribution. [6] Galerina hypnorum is a widespread species.

Galerina graminea can survive in moss-free grass, unlike many Galerina mushrooms. It was known for many years as 'Galerina laevis', proposed by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon.

Several Galerina species are listed by the US Forest Service as "species of special concern" in the Northwest Forest Plan. [7] These species are considered indicator species for old growth coniferous forest in the Pacific Northwest: Galerina atkinsonia, [8] Galerina cerina, [9] Galerina heterocystis, [9] Galerina sphagnicola, [9] and Galerina vittiformis . [10]

Toxicity of some species

Many (though not all) Galerina contain alpha-amanitin and other amatoxins. [11]

Galerina marginata (also known as "autumn skullcap", "deadly galerina", etc.) is a poisonous species [12] found throughout the temperate regions of the world, in habitats as diverse as forests and urban parklands, wherever rotting wood is found. In 2001, DNA studies found that Galerina autumnalis and five other species of Galerina with similar morphologies were, in fact, synonyms of Galerina marginata. [13]

Galerina sulciceps , is a lethal species found in Indonesia and responsible for deaths there. One study found it more toxic than Amanita phalloides . [14]

Galerina steglichii is very rare, bruises blue and contains the hallucinogen psilocybin. [15] [16]

Identification

The extreme toxicity of some Galerina species means that recognition of Galerina is of great importance to mushroom hunters who are seeking hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms. Species like Galerina marginata may bear a superficial resemblance to Psilocybe cyanescens and other Psilocybe species, and has often been found growing amongst and around Psilocybe cyanescens and other Psilocybe species, making identification all the more confusing to the uninitiated. Galerina can be distinguished from psilocybin Psilocybe by the following characteristics:

Although these rules are specific to the separation of Galerina from certain Psilocybe, since mixed patches of Psilocybe and Galerina can occur, it is essential to be sure of the identity of each sporocarp collected.

Galerina also present some risk of confusion with several species of small edible mushrooms, notably Kuehneromyces mutabilis [ citation needed ] and candy caps (L. camphoratus and allies). [19] [20]

Related Research Articles

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<i>Psilocybe</i> Genus of fungi

Psilocybe is a genus of gilled mushrooms, growing worldwide, in the family Hymenogastraceae. Many species contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin.

<i>Psilocybe cyanescens</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Psilocybe quebecensis</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Psilocybe baeocystis</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Galerina marginata</i> Poisonous fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

Galerina marginata, known colloquially as funeral bell, deadly skullcap, autumn skullcap or deadly galerina, is a species of extremely poisonous mushroom-forming fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae of the order Agaricales. It contains the same deadly amatoxins found in the death cap. Ingestion in toxic amounts causes severe liver damage with vomiting, diarrhea, hypothermia, and eventual death if not treated rapidly. About ten poisonings have been attributed to the species now grouped as G. marginata over the last century.

<i>Conocybula cyanopus</i> Species of fungus

Conocybula cyanopus is a species of fungus that contains psychoactive compounds including psilocybin and the uncommon aeruginascin. Originally described as Galerula cyanopus by American mycologist George Francis Atkinson in 1918. It was transferred to Conocybe by Robert Kühner in 1935 before being transferred to Pholiotina by Rolf Singer in 1950 and finally to Conocybula by T. Bau & H. B. Song in 2024. Conocybula cyanopus is recognized as the type species of Conocybula sect. Cyanopodae.

<i>Psilocybe caerulipes</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Psilocybe aucklandiae</i> Species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

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<i>Psilocybe subaeruginosa</i> Species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae

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<i>Psilocybe guilartensis</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Deconica montana</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Psilocybe stuntzii</i> Species of fungus

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<i>Mythicomyces</i> Genus of fungi

Mythicomyces is a fungal genus in the family Mythicomycetaceae. A monotypic genus, it contains the single species Mythicomyces corneipes, first described by Elias Fries in 1861. The fungus produces fruit bodies with shiny yellowish-orange to tawny caps that are 1–3 cm (0.4–1.2 in) in diameter. These are supported by stems measuring 2–5.7 cm (0.8–2.2 in) long and 1–2 mm thick. A rare to uncommon species, it is found in northern temperate regions of North America and Europe, where it typically fruits in groups, in wet areas of coniferous forests. There are several species with which M. corneipes might be confused due to a comparable appearance or similar range and habitat, but microscopic characteristics can be used to reliably distinguish between them.

<i>Galerina sulciceps</i> Species of fungus

Galerina sulciceps is a dangerously toxic species of fungus in the family Strophariaceae, of the order Agaricales. It is distributed in tropical Indonesia and India, but has reportedly been found fruiting in European greenhouses on occasion. More toxic than the deathcap, G. sulciceps has been shown to contain the toxins alpha- (α-), beta- (β-) and gamma- (γ-) amanitin; a series of poisonings in Indonesia in the 1930s resulted in 14 deaths from the consumption of this species. It has a typical "little brown mushroom" appearance, with few obvious external characteristics to help distinguish it from many other similar nondescript brown species. The fruit bodies of the fungus are tawny to ochre, deepening to reddish-brown at the base of the stem. The gills are well-separated, and there is no ring present on the stem.

<i>Psilocybe makarorae</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe makarorae is a species of psilocybin mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. Officially described as new to science in 1995, it is known only from New Zealand, where it grows on rotting wood and twigs of southern beeches. The fruit body (mushroom) has a brownish cap with lighter coloured margins, measuring up to 3.5 cm (1.4 in) wide. The cap shape is either conical, bell-shaped, but as the mushroom grows, it expands to become convex, and it features a prominent umbo. Although the whitish stem does not form a true ring, it retains remnants of the partial veil that covers and protects the gills of young fruit bodies. P. makarorae mushrooms can be distinguished from the similar North American species Psilocybe caerulipes by microscopic characteristics such as the presence of cystidia on the gill faces (pleurocystidia), and cheilocystidia with more elongated necks. Based on the bluing reaction to injury, P. makarorae is presumed to contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin.

<i>Psilocybe yungensis</i> Psychedelic mushroom in the family Strophariaceae

Psilocybe yungensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. In North America, it is found in northeast, central and southeastern Mexico. In South America, it has been recorded from Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador. It is also known from the Caribbean island Martinique, and China. The mushroom grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood. The fruit bodies have conical to bell-shaped reddish- to orangish-brown caps that are up to 2.5 cm (1.0 in) in diameter, set atop slender stems 3 to 5 cm long. The mushrooms stain blue when bruised, indicative of the presence of the compound psilocybin. Psilocybe yungensis is used by Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca for entheogenic purposes.

<i>Psilocybe pelliculosa</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe pelliculosa is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, have a conical brownish cap up to 2 cm in diameter atop a slender stem up to 8 cm long. It has a white partial veil that does not leave a ring on the stem. American mycologist Alexander H. Smith first described the species in 1937 as a member of the genus known today as Psathyrella; it was transferred to Psilocybe by Rolf Singer in 1958.

Phaeogalera is a small genus of slender, fleshy bog and swamp-inhabiting mushrooms with large, brownish spores with a germ pore and a hymenium lacking chrysocystidia. Phaeogalera resemble Galerina in their habitat, macroscopic appearance, and spore print color, however, their microscopic characteristics more closely resemble Psilocybe. The type species, Phaeogalera stagnina, has an Arctic-alpine distribution in the Northern Hemisphere extending into the boreal forests and taiga. It grows along the edges of bogs in peaty soils and sometimes amongst Sphagnum or other mosses. This type species has been classified in Galerina, Tubaria and Psilocybe. Modern molecular evidence supports the recognition of Phaeogalera as an independent genus separate from Galerina. The generic name is built upon the antiquated generic name "Galera", now synonymous with Galerina, and with a reference to the darker colors of the basidiospores of Phaeogalera. When originally proposed by Kühner, he forgot to fully cite the original publication for the type species which explains by the name was later validly published by Pegler & Young in 1975. The genus Meottomyces was segregated from Phaeogalera after briefly being classified together by Romagnesi.

References

  1. ↑ "Galerina Earle 1909". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2011-12-24.
  2. 1 2 3 Gulden GØ, Stensrud K, Shalchian-Tabrizi K, Kauserud H (2005). "Galerina Earle: A polyphyletic genus in the consortium of dark-spored agarics" (PDF). Mycologia. 97 (4): 823–837. doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.4.823. PMID   16457352.
  3. 1 2 Wood AE (2001). "Studies in the genus Galerina (Agaricales) in Australia". Australian Systematic Botany. 14 (4): 615–676. doi:10.1071/SB99016.
  4. ↑ Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians by William C. Roody
  5. 1 2 Kühner R. (1972). "Agaricales de la zone alpine: Genres Galera Earle et Phaeogalera gen. nov". Bulletin Trimestriel de la Société Mycologique de France. 88: 41–153.
  6. ↑ Laursen GA, Horak E, Taylor DL (2005). "Galerina patagonica Singer from Gondwanian mainland AU and NZ, their subantarctic islands, and Patagonia". Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Mycological Society of Japan. 49: 149.
  7. ↑ Castellano MA, Cázares E, Fondrick B, Dreisbach T (2003). "Part 1". Handbook to additional fungal species of special concern in the Northwest Forest Plan (General Technical Report PNW-GTR-572) (PDF). Portland, OR: USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. p. 144 p. (Hereafter referred to as "Castellano, et al. 2003.")
  8. ↑ Castellano, et al. 2003. Part 4.
  9. 1 2 3 Castellano, et al. 2003. Part 5.
  10. ↑ Castellano, et al. 2003. Part 6.
  11. ↑ Enjalbert F, Cassanas G, Rapior S, Renault C, Chaumont JP (2004). "Amatoxins in wood-rotting Galerina marginata" (PDF). Mycologia. 96 (4): 720–729. doi:10.2307/3762106. JSTOR   3762106. PMID   21148893. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-18.
  12. ↑ Enjalbert F, Cassanas G, Rapior S, Renault C, Chaumont J-P (2004). "Amatoxins in wood-rotting Galerina marginata". Mycologia . 96 (4): 720–729. doi:10.2307/3762106. JSTOR   3762106. PMID   21148893.
  13. ↑ Gulden G, Dunham S, Stockman J (2001). "DNA studies in the Galerina marginata complex" . Mycological Research. 105 (4): 432–440. doi:10.1017/S0953756201003707.
  14. ↑ Klán J. (1993). "Prehled hub obsahujících amanitiny a faloidiny [A review of mushrooms containing amanitins and phalloidines]". Časopis Lékařů Českých. 132 (15): 449–451.
  15. ↑ Gartz J. (1995). "Cultivation and analysis of Psilocybe species and an investigation of Galerina steglichi". Annali Museo Civico di Rovereto. 10: 297–306. Archived from the original on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  16. ↑ Besl H. (1993). "Galerina steglichii spec. nov, ein halluzinogener Haeubling". Zeitschrift für Mykologie. 59: 215–218.
  17. ↑ Stamets P. (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World: An Identification Guide. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. p. 53. ISBN   978-0-89815-839-7.
  18. ↑ Kuo M. (2004). "Galerina marginata ("Galerina autumnalis")". MushroomExpert.com.
  19. ↑ Campbell D. (2004). "The candy cap complex" (PDF). Mycena News . 55 (3): 3–4. Retrieved 2015-06-07. (scroll down)
  20. ↑ Kuo M. (2007). "Lactarius camphoratus". MushroomExpert.com. Retrieved 2009-02-16.

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