Chili pepper

"Red Chillies" redirects here. For the film, see Red Chillies (film)."Hot pepper" redirects here. For other uses, see Hot pepper (disambiguation).For the dish often called simply "chili", see Chili con carne.For the band, see Red Hot Chili Peppers.

Chili peppers of varied colours and sizes: green bird's eye, yellow Madame Jeanette, red cayenne

Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilli (from Classical Nahuatl chīlli [ˈt͡ʃiːlːi] ^ⓘ ), are varieties of berry-fruit plants from the genus Capsicum , which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency. Chili peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add "heat" to dishes. Capsaicin and the related capsaicinoids give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically. Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types of chili powder, each offering its own taste and heat level.

Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in Mexico. European explorers brought chili peppers back to the Old World in the late 16th century as part of the Columbian Exchange, which led to the cultivation of multiple varieties across the world for food and traditional medicine. Five Capsicum species have been widely cultivated: annuum , baccatum , chinense , frutescens , and pubescens .

History

Origins

Capsicum plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia, and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC. ^{[1] [2]} They are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas. ^[2] Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago, ^{[3] [4]} and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon. ^[5] They were among the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in those areas. ^{[6] [2]}

Peru has the highest diversity of cultivated Capsicum; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times. ^[7] The largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties. ^[7]

Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu, 1804

Distribution to Europe

Further information: Columbian exchange

When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper (Piper nigrum), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods. ^{[8] [9]} Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between the New World and the Old World called the Columbian exchange. Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike Piper vines, which grow naturally only in the tropics, chilies could be grown in temperate climates. By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in the Balkans, where they came to be processed into paprika. ^{[10] [11]}

Distribution to the rest of the world

The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa, Sri Lanka, and Malacca. From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to Melanesia, Micronesia, and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China, and Nagasaki, Japan. ^{[12] [13] [14] [15]} The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s. ^[16]

Producing chili peppers

Cultivation

Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly-coloured fruits of species of Capsicum. ^{[17] [18]} Botanically they are berries. The plants are small, 20 to 60 centimetres (7.9 to 23.6 in) depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, greenhouses, or commercially in polytunnels. The plants are perennial, provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If the fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest. ^[17]

Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally 21 to 29 °C (70 to 84 °F), that is moist but not waterlogged. ^[19] The seeds germinate only when warm, close to 21 °C (70 °F). ^[17] The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to 12 °C (54 °F); and are sensitive to cold. ^[17] The flowers can self-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperatures, 30 to 38 °C (86 to 100 °F), pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit. ^[20] For flowering, Capsicum is a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop. ^[21]

Chilies are vulnerable to pests including aphids, glasshouse red spider mite, and glasshouse whitefly, all of which feed on plant sap. ^[17] Common diseases include grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea ; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface. ^[17]

• Cultivation
• 
  Young plants
• 
  Buds and flowers
• 
  Immature chilies in the field
• 
  Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar
• 
  Leaf damaged by aphids
• 
  Ripe chili pepper with seeds

Preparation

Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry. ^[22]

• Drying chilies
• 
  Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal
• 
  Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India
• 
  New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico

• 
  Sundried chili at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
• 
  Ristras of chili peppers drying in Arizona
• 
  Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, Mexico
• 
  Smoke-dried chipotle

Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and chili powder, ^[23] Fresh or dried chilies are used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes. ^[24] Dried chilies are used to make chili oil, cooking oil infused with chili. ^[25]

• Products
• 
  Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar
• 
  Chili powder, India
• 
  Brands of hot sauce, California
• 
  Chili oil

Annual production

Production of chillies and peppers, green – 2020

Region	(Millions of tons)
China	16.7
Mexico	2.8
Indonesia	2.8
Turkey	2.6
Spain	1.5
World	36.1
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations [26]

In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total. ^[26]

Species and cultivars

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Capsicum cultivars.

Species of Capsicum that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified phylogenetic tree, ^[27] with examples of cultivars: ^[28]

Capsicum	C. annuum : bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeño, Thai, chiltepin, New Mexico chile C. frutescens : tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, kambuzi C. chinense : hottest peppers, e.g. naga, habanero, datil, Scotch bonnet C. baccatum : aji C. pubescens : rocoto, chile de caballo C. eximium [lower-alpha 1] C. lycianthoides

• Cultivars
• 
  Cayenne peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum annuum
• 
  Tabasco peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum frutescens , fruits pointing upwards
• 
  Habanero peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum chinense
• 
  Cubanelle peppers,
  United States
• 
  Scotch bonnets,
  Caribbean
• 
  Bird's eye chilies,
  Thailand
• 
  Cheongyang peppers,
  South Korea

• 
  Black Pearl cultivar of C. annuum
• 
  Choricero,
  Spain
• 
  Purple chilies,
  Myanmar

Intensity

Capsaicin

Main article: Capsaicin

Chemical structure

Space-filling model

Capsaicin, the principal molecule that gives chili its heat ^[30]

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. ^{[30] [31]} Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature. ^[32] The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit. ^[33]

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived. ^[34] However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. ^[35] The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating. ^[36] Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure. ^[37]

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators. A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a hemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by a Fusarium fungus carried by the insects is reduced. ^[38] As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds. ^[38]

Intensity range of commonly-used cultivars

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

Bell pepper	0 SHU
Fresno, jalapeño	3,500–10,000 SHU
Cayenne	30,000–50,000 SHU
Piri piri, bird's eye	50,000–100,000 SHU
Habanero, Scotch bonnet	100,000–350,000 SHU [39]

Hottest by country

Further information: Hottest chili pepper

The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:

Country	Type	Heat (SHU)
United States	Pepper X	2.69M [40]
Wales	Dragon's Breath	2.48M [41]
United States	Carolina Reaper	2.2M [42]
Trinidad and Tobago	Trinidad moruga scorpion	2.0M [43]
India	Ghost pepper (Bhut jolokia)	1.58M [44]
Trinidad and Tobago	Trinidad Scorpion Butch T	1.46M [45]
England	Naga Viper	1.38M [46]
England	Infinity chili	1.07M [47]

As food

Nutritional value

Peppers, hot chili, red, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	166 kJ (40 kcal)
Carbohydrates	8.8 g
Sugars	5.3 g
Dietary fiber	1.5 g
Fat	0.4 g
Protein	1.9 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. beta-Carotene 5% 48 μg 5% 534 μg Vitamin B6 30% 0.51 mg Vitamin C 160% 144 mg Minerals Quantity %DV† Iron 6% 1 mg Magnesium 5% 23 mg Potassium 11% 322 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	88 g
Capsaicin	0.01g – 6 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [48] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [49]

Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B₆. ^[50]

Pungency

Due to their unique pungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions. ^{[51] [52]} Chili is a key ingredient in many curries, providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether. ^[53]

Cooking

Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked. ^[54]

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola . ^[55] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi. ^[56]

Regional cuisines

Chilies are present in many cuisines. In Peru, Papa a la huancaina is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and aji amarillo chilies. ^[57] In Thailand, kaeng tai pla fish curry is flavoured with a tai pla sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies. ^[57] In Jamaica, jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and allspice. ^[57] Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot ghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish". ^[57] In Bhutan, ema datshi , entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish. ^{[58] [59]} Many Mexican dishes use chilies of different types, including the jalapeño, poblano, habanero, serrano, chipotle, ancho, pasilla, guajillo, de árbol, cascabel and mulato. These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy mole sauce and Mexican salsa sauces. ^[60]

• Dishes
• 
  Mexican lamb chops with guajillo chili sauce and charro beans
• 
  Lamb Madras curry
• 
  Pickled chili in India
• 
  Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan
• 
  Filipino tinola chicken soup with labuyo chili leaves

Other uses

Ornamental plants

Black pearl pepper, an ornamental variety

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

• Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves ^[61]
• Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits ^[62]
• Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell ^[63]

Constrained risk-taking

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm. ^[64]

Topical use and health research

Capsaicin, the pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain. ^[65] A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer. ^[66]

Chemical irritants

Further information: Pepper spray and Chili grenade

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds. ^[67] Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death. ^[67]

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin due to their large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system. The smell of chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants. ^[68]

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific pain receptor. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources. ^[35]

Etymology and spelling

The English word is from from Classical Nahuatl chīlli with the same meaning. ^[69] The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile. ^[70] While pepper originally meant the genus Piper , not Capsicum, the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster record both usages. ^{[71] [72]}

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all recognized by dictionaries.

• Chili is widely used in English of the United States ^[73] and optionally in Canada. ^[74]
• Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries, ^[75] and some parts of the United States. ^[76]
• Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli), ^[70] and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary . ^[70] Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in former British colonies such as India ^[77] and Sri Lanka. ^[78]

Safety

The volatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts. ^[79] Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization. ^[80]

Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including Auramine O, Chrysoidine, Sudan stains I to IV, Para red, and Rhodamine B to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by liquid chromatography used together with mass spectrometry. ^[81]

In popular culture

Peperoncino chilies in Italy, advertised as an aphrodisiac

The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist José de Acosta noted the supposed aphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's spiritual health. ^[82] In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle." ^[82]

See also

• Food and drink prohibitions – which in some cultures includes chili peppers
• Hatch, New Mexico – known as the "Chile Capital of the World"
• History of chocolate – which the Maya drank with ground chili peppers
• International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile – organization for the promotion of chili peppers
• Peppersoup
• Salsa (sauce)
• Sweet chili sauce – a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food

Notes

1. C. eximium is used as a spice in Bolivia. ^[29]
2. The sign says in Italian "Calabrian Viagra".

References

1. Pickersgill B (December 1971). "Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus Capsicum)". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 25 (4): 683–691. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x . PMID   28564789. S2CID   205772121.
2. Bosland PW (1998). "Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop". In Janick J (ed.). Progress in New Crops. Arlington, Virginia: ASHS Press. pp. 479–487. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
3. "Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico". EurekaAlert, American Association for the Advancement of Science. 21 April 2014.
4. Kraft KH, Brown CH, Nabhan GP, Luedeling E, Luna Ruiz J, Coppens d'Eeckenbrugge G, et al. (April 2014). "Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (17): 6165–6170. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6165K. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1308933111 . PMC   4035960 . PMID   24753581.
5. Chiou KL, Hastorf CA (16 December 2014). "A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond". Economic Botany. 68 (3). New York Botanical Garden Press: 316–336. Bibcode:2014EcBot..68..316C. doi:10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2. JSTOR   43305668. S2CID   36556206.
6. Carrizo García C, Barfuss MH, Sehr EM, Barboza GE, Samuel R, Moscone EA, Ehrendorfer F (July 2016). "Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of chili peppers ( Capsicum, Solanaceae)". Annals of Botany. 118 (1): 35–51. doi:10.1093/aob/mcw079. ISSN   0305-7364. PMC   4934398 . PMID   27245634.
7. van Zonneveld M, Ramirez M, Williams DE, Petz M, Meckelmann S, Avila T, et al. (2015). "Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0134663. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1034663V. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134663 . PMC   4581705 . PMID   26402618.
8. Bosland PW, Votava E (2000). Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums. New York City: CABI. p. 1. ISBN   9780851993355 . Retrieved 29 November 2018.
9. "The Story of Chile Peppers". New Mexico State University Chile Pepper Institute. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
10. Sauer JD (2017). Historical Geography of Crop Plants A Select Roster. CRC Press. p. 161. ISBN   9781351440622.
11. Raghavan S (2006). Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings. CRC Press. p. 8. ISBN   9781420004366.
12. Wallin, Nils-Bertil (11 June 2004). "Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire". YaleGlobal Online. Yale University. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
13. DeWitt D (2020). Chile Peppers A Global History. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN   9780826361806.
14. Collingham E (February 2006). Curry . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-09-943786-4.
15. Raj NM, Peter KV, Nybe EV (1 January 2007). Spices. New India Publishing. pp. 107–. ISBN   978-81-89422-44-8.
16. Dott BR (2020). The Chile Pepper in China. Columbia University Press. p. 21. ISBN   9780231551304. The earliest known record for chiles in a Chinese source is from Hangzhou, Zhejiang, in 1591
17. "How to grow chilli pepper / RHS Gardening".
18. "HORT410. Peppers – Notes". Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2009. Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.
19. "Growing Peppers: The Important Facts". GardenersGardening.com. Archived from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
20. "The Effect of Extreme Temperatures on the Tomato and Pepper Crop". King’s Printer for Ontario, 2012–24, Canada.
21. Hui YH, ed. (2005). Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering. Taylor & Francis. pp. 20–13. ISBN   978-1-4665-0787-6.
22. "How to dry chillies". BBC Gardeners' World Magazine. 4 September 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2024.
23. Farrell KT (1998). Spices, Condiments and Seasonings. Chapman & Hall. pp. 215–217. ISBN   978-0-8342-1337-1.
24. Thompson JT (24 April 2012). Hot Sauce!. North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Publishers. p. 15. ISBN   978-1-60342-813-2.
25. "What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything — even dessert". Today.com. 3 June 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
26. "Green chili production in 2020; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2022.
27. Shiragaki K, Yokoi S, Tezuka T (20 November 2020). "Phylogenetic Analysis and Molecular Diversity of Capsicum Based on rDNA-ITS Region". Horticulturae. 6 (4): 87. doi: 10.3390/horticulturae6040087 .
28. Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM (2013). Conservation of tropical plant species. New York: Springer. p. 397. ISBN   9781461437758 . Retrieved 28 November 2018.
29. Heiser CB, Smith PG (15 October 1958). "New Species of Capsicum from South America". Brittonia. 10 (4): 194. doi:10.2307/2804950.
30. Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Okumura H (1961). "Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles". Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi. 35: 923–927. doi: 10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.35.10_923 . Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.
31. Kosuge S, Inagaki Y (1962). "Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent". J. Agric. Chem. Soc. Japan (in Japanese). 36: 251–254.
32. "Capsaicin". PubChem, US National Library of Medicine. 27 May 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
33. Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, Zamudio-Moreno E, Guzmán-Antonio A, Echevarría-Machado I, Martínez-Estévez M (1 March 2011). "Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq". HortScience. 46 (3): 487–492. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487 .
34. O'Neill J, Brock C, Olesen AE, Andresen T, Nilsson M, Dickenson AH (October 2012). "Unravelling the mystery of capsaicin: a tool to understand and treat pain". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (4): 939–971. doi:10.1124/pr.112.006163. PMC   3462993 . PMID   23023032.
35. Tewksbury JJ, Nabhan GP (July 2001). "Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies". Nature. 412 (6845): 403–404. doi:10.1038/35086653. PMID   11473305. S2CID   4389051.
36. "History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS". Tabasco.Com. Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
37. Guzmán I, Bosland PW (2017). "Sensory properties of chili pepper heat - and its importance to food quality and cultural preference". Appetite. 117: 186–190. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.06.026 . PMID   28662907.
38. Tewksbury JJ, Reagan KM, Machnicki NJ, Carlo TA, Haak DC, Peñaloza AL, Levey DJ (August 2008). "Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (33): 11808–11811. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10511808T. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0802691105 . PMC   2575311 . PMID   18695236.
39. Filippone PT (11 October 2000). "Chile Pepper Heat Scoville Scale". Homecooking.about.com. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
40. Atwal S (16 October 2023). "Pepper X dethrones Carolina Reaper as world's hottest chilli pepper". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
41. Morris L (22 January 2018). "The Hottest Chilli in the World was Created in Wales Accidentally". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
42. Lynch K (19 November 2013). "Confirmed: Smokin Ed's Carolina Reaper sets new record for hottest chilli". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
43. Bryan SM (16 February 2012). "Trinidad Moruga Scorpion wins hottest pepper title". Yahoo! News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2013.
44. Joshi M (11 March 2012). "Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot". Your life. USA Today. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012.
45. Da Silva M (12 April 2011). "Aussies grow world's hottest chilli". Australian Geographic. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
46. "Title of world's hottest chili pepper stolen – again". The Independent . London. 25 February 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
47. Henderson N (19 February 2011). ""Record-breaking" chilli is hot news". BBC News. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
48. United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
49. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
50. Link to USDA Database entry
51. Robinson S (14 June 2007). "Chili Peppers: Global Warming". Time . Retrieved 25 May 2019.
52. McQuaid J (20 February 2015). "What's driving the global chili pepper craze?". Forbes Media. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
53. Jaffrey M (1982). Madhur Jaffrey's Indian Cookery. BBC. pp. 7–10. ISBN   978-0-563-16491-3.
54. Pratt J. "Chili recipes". BBC Food.
55. "Dahon ng Sili (Chili pepper leaves)". Tribo ความสุขบนเตียง. Archived from the original on 12 March 2007.
56. "Vitamin Rich Chili pepper Leaf Kimchi". Ssoft International Corporation. Archived from the original on 14 November 2009.
57. Eugenio R (18 February 2024). "Some like it hot: searching the seven continents for the best spicy dishes". Cathay Pacific. Retrieved 12 October 2024.
58. Subramanian S (23 October 2023). "This is what it's like hiking the newly reopened Trans-Bhutan Trail". Condé Nast Traveller India. Retrieved 12 October 2024. the stew of green peppers and cheese, fiery as arson, that is the national dish
59. Ramesh N. "Ema Datshi". 196 Flavors. Retrieved 12 October 2024.
60. "Ancho to serrano: a guide to Mexican chillies". Great British Chefs. Retrieved 12 October 2024.
61. "New Ornamental Pepper Wins Prestigious Award". The United States National Arboretum. 2006. Retrieved 11 October 2024.
62. "Chilies as Ornamental Plants". Seedsbydesign. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013.
63. Datiles, MJ; Acevedo-Rodriguez, P. "Capsicum baccatum (pepper)". CABI Digital Library. Retrieved 17 October 2024.
64. Rozin P, Schiller D (1980). "The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans". Motivation and Emotion. 4 (1): 77–101. doi:10.1007/BF00995932. S2CID   143848453.
65. Fattori V, Hohmann MS, Rossaneis AC, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA (June 2016). "Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses". Molecules. 21 (7): 844. doi: 10.3390/molecules21070844 . PMC   6273101 . PMID   27367653.
66. Kaur M, Verma BR, Zhou L, Lak HM, Kaur S, Sammour YM, et al. (March 2022). "Association of pepper intake with all-cause and specific cause mortality - A systematic review and meta-analysis". American Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 9: 100301. doi:10.1016/j.ajpc.2021.100301. PMC   8688560 . PMID   34977833.
67. Haar RJ, Iacopino V, Ranadive N, Weiser SD, Dandu M (October 2017). "Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: a systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray". BMC Public Health. 17 (1): 831. doi: 10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6 . PMC   5649076 . PMID   29052530.
68. Mott M. "Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds". National Geographic . Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
69. "chili (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary . Retrieved 11 October 2024.
70. "Chilli, chilly". Oxford English Dictionary . Vol. 2 C (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK. 1933. p. 346. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
71. "Pepper". OED . Vol. 7 N–Poy (1 Corrected re-issue ed.). Oxford, UK. 1913. p. 663. Retrieved 19 July 2021. (sense 2b of pepper)
72. "pepper". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
73. "Chili". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
74. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists chili as the main entry.
75. Heiser C (August 1990). Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-79681-2.
76. "chile". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary . Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
77. Usage example: "Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur". Thehindubusinessline.com. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
78. Usage example: "Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household". The Sunday Times . Retrieved 21 April 2012.
79. Beck A (8 May 2019). "How to Handle Hot Peppers and Chiles Safely". Better Homes and Gardens. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
80. Goldfrank LR, ed. (23 March 2007). Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 1167. ISBN   978-0-07-144310-4.
81. Li J, Ding X-M, Liu D-D, Guo F, Chen Y, Zhang Y-B, Liu H-M (2013). "Simultaneous determination of eight illegal dyes in chili products by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry". Journal of Chromatography B. 942–943: 46–52. doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.10.010.
82. Hospodar M (2004). "Aphrodisiac Foods: Bringing Heaven to Earth". Gastronomica. 4 (4): 82–93. doi:10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.82. JSTOR   10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.82.

External links

• Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses
• The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University
• Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop
• Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
• The Hot Pepper List List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)