Piper (plant)

Last updated

Piper
Temporal range: Maastrichtian - present [1]
Piper magnificum0.jpg
Lacquered pepper ( P. magnificum ) inflorescence
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Subfamily: Piperoideae
Genus: Piper
L.
Species

1000–2000; see list

Synonyms
  • AnderssoniopiperTrel.
  • ArctottoniaTrel.
  • ArtantheMiq.
  • ChavicaMiq.
  • DiscipiperTrel. & Stehlé
  • LepianthesRaf.
  • LindeniopiperTrel.
  • MacropiperMiq.
  • OttoniaSpreng.
  • PleiostachyopiperTrel.
  • PleistachyopiperTrel.
  • PothomorpheMiq.
  • TrianaeopiperTrel.

Piper, the pepper plants or pepper vines, is an economically and ecologically important genus in the family Piperaceae.

Contents

It contains about 1,000–2,000 species of shrubs, herbs, and lianas, many of which are dominant species in their native habitat. The diversification of this taxon is of interest to understanding the evolution of plants.

Pepper plants belong to the magnoliids, which are angiosperms but neither monocots nor eudicots. Their family, Piperaceae, is most closely related to the lizardtail family (Saururaceae), which in fact generally look like smaller, more delicate and amphibious pepper plants. Both families have characteristic tail-shaped inflorescences covered in tiny flowers. A somewhat less close relative is the pipevine family (Aristolochiaceae). A well-known and very close relative – being also part of the Piperaceae – are the radiator plants of the genus Peperomia .

The scientific name Piper and the common name "pepper" are derived from the Sanskrit term pippali, denoting the long pepper (P. longum).

Evolution

The earliest fossil of Piper is of †Piper margaritae from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of Colombia. P. margaritae appears to be nested within the clade Schilleria, indicating extensive Cretaceous diversification of Piper into the multiple extant clades, coinciding with the final breakup of Gondwana. This contrasts with previous theories assuming a younger radiation of the genus. An earlier potential record is of †Piper arcuatile from the Cenomanian to Santonian Kaltag Formation of Yukon, although this affinity to Piper is not entirely reliable. [1] [2] [3]

Distribution and ecology

Piper species have a pantropical distribution, and are most commonly found in the understory of lowland tropical forests, but can also occur in clearings and in higher elevation life zones such as cloud forests; one species the Japanese Pepper ( P. kadsura ) from southern Japan and southernmost Korea is subtropical and can tolerate light winter frost. Peppers are often dominant species where they are found.

Most Piper species are either herbaceous or vines; some grow as shrubs or almost as small trees. A few species, commonly called "ant pipers" (e.g. Piper cenocladum ), live in a mutualism with ants. The fruit of the Piper plant, called a peppercorn when it is round and pea-sized, as is usual, is distributed in the wild mainly by birds, but small fruit-eating mammals – e.g. bats of the genus Carollia – are also important. Despite the high content of chemicals that are noxious to herbivores, some have evolved the ability to withstand the chemical defences of pepper plants, for example the sematurine moth Homidiana subpicta or some flea beetles of the genus Lanka . The latter can be significant pests to pepper growers.

Usages

Many pepper plants make good ornamentals for gardens in subtropical or warmer regions. Pepper vines can be used much as ivy in temperate climates, while other species, like lacquered pepper ( P. magnificum ) grow as sizeable, compact and attractive shrubs with tough and shiny leaves. Smaller species, like Celebes pepper ( P. ornatum ) with its finely patterned leaves, are also suitable as indoor pot plants.

Unsustainable logging of tropical primary forests is threatening a number of peppers. The extent of the effect of such wholesale habitat destruction on the genus is unknown, but in the forests of Ecuador – the only larger region for which comprehensive data exists [4] – more than a dozen species are known to be on the brink of extinction. On the other hand, other Piper species (e.g. spiked pepper, P. aduncum ) have been widely distributed as a result of human activity and are a major invasive species in certain areas.

The most significant human use of Piper is not for its looks however, but ultimately for the wide range of powerful secondary compounds found particularly in the fruits.

As spice and vegetable

Culinary use of pepper plants is attested perhaps as early as 9,000 years ago. Peppercorn remains were found among the food refuse left by Hoabinhian artisans at Spirit Cave, Thailand. It is likely that these plants were collected from the wild rather than deliberately grown. [5] [6]

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) corns, from left to right:
Green (pickled unripe fruits)
White (dried ripe seeds)
Black (dried unripe fruits) Pfeffer-Gewurz.jpg
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) corns, from left to right:
Green (pickled unripe fruits)
White (dried ripe seeds)
Black (dried unripe fruits)

Use of peppercorns as pungent spice is significant on an international scale. By classical antiquity, there was a vigorous trade of spices including black pepper ( P. nigrum ) from South Asia to Europe. The Apicius , a recipe collection complied about 400 AD, mentions "pepper" as a spice for most main dishes. [7] In the late Roman Empire, black pepper was expensive, but was available readily enough to be used more frequently than salt [lower-alpha 1] or sugar.

As Europe moved into the Early Middle Ages, trade routes deteriorated and the use of pepper declined somewhat, but peppercorns, storing easily and having a high mass per volume, never ceased to be a profitable trade item. In the Middle Ages, international traders were nicknamed Pfeffersäcke ("pepper-sacks") in German towns of the Hanseatic League and elsewhere. Later, wars were fought by European powers, between themselves and in complex alliances and enmities with Indian Ocean states, in part about control of the supply of spices, perhaps the most archetypal being black pepper fruit. Today, peppercorns of the three preparations (green, white and black) are one of the most widely used spices of plant origin worldwide.

Due to the wide distribution of Piper, the fruit of other species are also important spices, many of them internationally. Long pepper (P. longum), is possibly the second-most popular Piper spice internationally; it has a rather chili-like "heat" and the whole inflorescence is used as the fruits are tiny. Cubeb (P. cubeba), also known as tailed pepper, played a major role in the spice trade. Reputedly Philip IV of Spain suppressed trade in cubeb peppercorns at the end of the 1630s to capitalize on his share of the black pepper trade. [8] It remains a significant spice around the Indian Ocean region today, however. West African pepper ( P. guineense ), is commonly used in West African cuisine, and is sometimes used in the East African berbere spice mix. This species, despite being traded more extensively in earlier times, is less common outside Africa today.

Not only the seeds of Piper are used in cooking. West African Pepper leaves, known locally as uziza, are used as a flavoring vegetable in Nigerian stews. In Mexican-influenced cooking, hoja santa or Mexican pepperleaf ( P. auritum ) has a variety of uses. In Southeast Asia, leaves of two species of Piper have major importance in cooking: lolot (P. lolot) is used to wrap meat for grilling in the Indochina region, while wild betel ( P. sarmentosum ) is used raw or cooked as a vegetable in Malay and Thai cuisine; [9] [10] The stems and roots of Piper chaba are used as a spice in Bangladeshi cuisine.

As medicine

At a Kava club in Tonga (c. 2005) Faikava.jpg
At a Kava club in Tonga (c.2005)

Cubeb (P. cubeba) has been used in folk medicine and herbalism as well as, particularly in the early 20th century, as a cigarette flavoring. P. darienense is used medically by the Kuna people of the Panama-Colombia border region, and elsewhere it is used to intoxicate fish which then can be easily caught. Spiked pepper, often called matico appears to have strong disinfectant and antibiotic properties. Black pepper (P. nigrum) essential oil is sometimes used in herbalism, and long pepper (P. longum) is similarly employed in Ayurveda, where it was an ingredient of Triphala Guggulu and (together with black pepper) of Trikatu pills, used for rasayana (rejuvenating and detoxifying) purposes.

One Piper species has gained large-scale use as a stimulant. Betel (P. betle) leaves are used to wrap betel palm nut slices; its sap helps release the stimulating effect of these "cookies" which are widely known as pan in India.

Conversely, another Piper species, kava (P. methysticum), is used for its depressant and euphoriant effects. In the Pacific region, where it has been widely spread as a canoe plant, kava is used to produce a calming and socializing drink somewhat similar to alcohol and benzodiazapines but without many of the negative side effects and less of an addiction risk. It has also become popular elsewhere in recent decades, and is used as a medical plant. However, pills that contain parts of the whole plant have occasionally shown a strong hepatotoxic effect, which has led to the banning of kava in many countries. On the other hand, the traditional preparation of the root as a calming drink appears to pose little, if any, such hazard. [11] [12] [ needs update ]

In science

The genus contains species suitable for studying natural history, molecular biology, natural products chemistry, community ecology, and evolutionary biology. [13]

Crystallized piperine, extracted from black pepper (Piper nigrum) Piperine crystals.jpg
Crystallized piperine, extracted from black pepper (Piper nigrum)

Piper is a model genus for research in ecology and evolutionary biology. The diversity and ecological importance of the genus makes it a strong candidate for ecological and evolutionary studies. Most research has focused on the economically important species P. nigrum (black pepper), P. methysticum (kava), and P. betle (betel). A recent study based on DNA sequence analysis suggest that P. nigrum originated in the Western Ghats hot spot in India. [14]

The obligate and facultative[ further explanation needed ] ant mutualists found in some Piper species have a strong influence on their biology, making them ideal systems for research on the evolution of symbioses and the effect of mutualisms on biotic communities.[ citation needed ]

Important secondary metabolites found in pepper plants are piperine and chavicine, which were first isolated from Black Pepper, and reported to have antibiotic activities. Preliminary research reports has shown that piperine has an antibacterial activity against various bacteria such as S. aureus, [15] [16] Streptococcus mutans, [17] and gastric cancer pathogen Helicobacter pylori [18] and decreased H. pylori toxin entry to gastric epithelial cells. [19] The piperidine functional group is named after the former, and piperazine (which is not found in P. nigrum in noticeable quantities) was in turn named after piperidine.

The significant secondary metabolites of kava are kavalactones and flavokawains. Pipermethystine is suspected to be the main hepatotoxic compound in this plant's stems and leaves.

Repelling insects

Studies have been done to determine the effectiveness of piper leaves to repel different types of insects. [20]

Capuchin monkey s have been recorded by BBC Earth rubbing the piper leaves on them to repel insects. [21]

Species

The largest number of Piper species are found in the Americas (about 700 species), with about 300 species from Southern Asia. There are smaller groups of species from the South Pacific (about 40 species) and Africa (about 15 species). The American, Asian, and South Pacific groups each appear to be monophyletic; the affinity of the African species is unclear. [22]

Some species are sometimes segregated into the genera Pothomorphe, Macropiper, Ottonia, Arctottonia, Sarcorhachis, Trianaeopiper, and Zippelia, but other sources keep them in Piper. [22]

The species called "Piper aggregatum" and "P. fasciculatum" are actually Lacistema aggregatum , a plant from the family Lacistemataceae.

Notes

  1. Apicius generally uses garum fish sauce instead; raw brine and large quantities of herbs were also employed by many.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bell pepper</span> Group of fruits of Capsicum annuum

The bell pepper is the fruit of plants in the Grossum Group of the species Capsicum annuum. Cultivars of the plant produce fruits in different colors, including red, yellow, orange, green, white, chocolate, candy cane striped, and purple. Bell peppers are sometimes grouped with less pungent chili varieties as "sweet peppers". While they are botanically fruits—classified as berries—they are commonly used as a vegetable ingredient or side dish. Other varieties of the genus Capsicum are categorized as chili peppers when they are cultivated for their pungency, including some varieties of Capsicum annuum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black pepper</span> Ground fruit of the family Piperaceae

Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter, dark red, and contains a stone which encloses a single pepper seed. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper, green pepper, or white pepper.

<i>Helicobacter pylori</i> Species of bacteria

Helicobacter pylori, previously known as Campylobacter pylori, is a gram-negative, microaerophilic, spiral (helical) bacterium usually found in the stomach. Its helical shape is thought to have evolved in order to penetrate the mucoid lining of the stomach and thereby establish infection. The bacterium was first identified in 1982 by the Australian doctors Barry Marshall and Robin Warren. H. pylori has been associated with cancer of the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue in the stomach, esophagus, colon, rectum, or tissues around the eye, and of lymphoid tissue in the stomach.

<i>Helicobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Helicobacter is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria possessing a characteristic helical shape. They were initially considered to be members of the genus Campylobacter, but in 1989, Goodwin et al. published sufficient reasons to justify the new genus name Helicobacter. The genus Helicobacter contains about 35 species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piperaceae</span> Family of flowering plants in the order Piperales

The Piperaceae, also known as the pepper family, are a large family of flowering plants. The group contains roughly 3,600 currently accepted species in 5 genera. The vast majority of species can be found within the two main genera: Piper and Peperomia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Betel</span> Species of plant

The betel, Piper betle, is a species of flowering plant in the pepper family Piperaceae, native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious vine, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plants are cultivated for their leaves which are most commonly used as flavoring in chewing areca nut.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piperine</span> Alkaloid responsible for the pungency of black pepper

Piperine, along with its isomer chavicine, is the compound responsible for the pungency of black pepper and long pepper. It has been used in some forms of traditional medicine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Long pepper</span> Species of plant cultivated for its fruit which is used as a spice

Long pepper, sometimes called Indian long pepper or pippali, is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. Long pepper has a taste similar to, but sweeter and less pungent than, that of its close relative Piper nigrum – from which black, green and white pepper are obtained.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink peppercorn</span> Dried berry of the shrub Schinus molle

A pink peppercorn is a dried berry referring to three different species; the traditional Baies rose plant Euonymus phellomanus, the shrub Schinus molle, commonly known as the Peruvian peppertree, and the Schinus terebinthifolia.

<i>Schinus molle</i> Species of tree

Schinus molle is an evergreen tree that grows to 15 meters. It is native to an area from the Peruvian Andes to southern Brazil. The bright pink fruits of Schinus molle are often sold as "pink peppercorns" although S. molle is unrelated to black pepper. The word molle in Schinus molle comes from mulli, the Quechua word for the tree. The tree is host to the pepper-tree moth, Bombycomorpha bifascia.

<i>Piper aduncum</i> Species of plant

Piper aduncum, the spiked pepper, matico, hierba del soldado, achotlín, cordoncillo, higuillo or higuillo de hoja menuda, is a flowering plant in the family Piperaceae. Like many species in the family, the matico tree has a peppery odor. It grows wild on the coasts and in the forests of Central and South America and in the Interandean Valleys, up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) above sea level.

<i>Piper guineense</i> Species of flowering plant

Piper guineense is a West African species of Piper; the spice derived from its dried fruit is known as Ashanti pepper, Benin pepper, Edo pepper, false cubeb, Guinea cubeb, and called locally kale, kukauabe, masoro, etiñkeni, sasema, soro wisa, eyendo, eshasha by the Urhobo people, and oziza and uziza by the Igbo people of Nigeria. It is a close relative of cubeb pepper and a relative of black pepper and long pepper. Unlike cubeb, which is large and spherical in shape, Ashanti pepper grains are prolate spheroids, smaller and smoother than Cubeb pepper in appearance and generally bear a reddish tinge. The stalks of Ashanti pepper berries are also distinctly curved whilst those of cubeb pepper are completely straight. The terms West African pepper and Guinea pepper have also been used, but are ambiguous and may refer to grains of Selim or grains of paradise.

<i>Piper retrofractum</i> Species of plant

Piper retrofractum, the Balinese long pepper or Javanese long pepper, is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit of Piper retrofractum is similar in appearance and taste to that of the Indian long pepper.

<i>Piper chaba</i> Species of flowering plant

Piper chaba, commonly known as piper chilli, is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae native to South and Southeast Asia. P. chaba is called chui jhal or choi jhal in the Khulna Division of Bangladesh, and the states of Tripura and West Bengal in India. P. chaba is found throughout India, and other warmer regions of Asia including Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Sri Lanka.

<i>Piper borbonense</i> Species of flowering plant

Piper borbonense is a species of plant in the genus Piper. A close relative of black pepper, its berries are used as a spice known as voatsiperifery, which comes from voa, the Malagasy word for fruit, and tsiperifery, the local name of the plant. A wild pepper, it grows in Madagascar. It can reach up to 20 metres and needs a natural plant support.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sichuan pepper</span> Chinese spice

Sichuan pepper, also known as Szechuan pepper, Szechwan pepper, Chinese prickly ash, Chinese pepper, Mountain pepper, and mala pepper, is a spice commonly used in Sichuan cuisine in China, and in Nepal and north east India. Despite its name, Sichuan pepper is not closely related to black pepper or chili peppers. It is made from plants of the genus Zanthoxylum in the family Rutaceae, which includes citrus and rue.

Malabar pepper is a variety of black pepper that originated as a chance seedling in a geographical region that now forms part of the present-day state of Kerala in India. The area of production of this variety of pepper now covers all the regions that are part of the Malabar Coast. Malabar pepper was one of the commodities most sought after by the ancient Roman and Arab traders, and later by the early European navigators.

Guineesine is a compound isolated from long pepper and black pepper.

Helicobacter heilmannii sensu lato refers to a group of bacterial species within the Helicobacter genus. The Helicobacter genus consists of at least 40 species of spiral-shaped flagellated, Gram-negative bacteria of which the by far most prominent and well-known species is Helicobacter pylori. H. pylori is associated with the development of gastrointestinal tract diseases such as stomach inflammation, stomach ulcers, duodenal ulcers, stomach cancers that are not lymphomas, and various subtypes of extranodal marginal zone lymphomas, e.g. those of the stomach, small intestines, large intestines, and rectumn. H. pylori has also been associated with the development of bile duct cancer and has been associated with a wide range of other diseases although its role in the development of many of these other diseases requires further study.

References

  1. 1 2 Martínez, Camila; Carvalho, Mónica R.; Madriñán, Santiago; Jaramillo, Carlos A. (2015). "A Late CretaceousPiper(Piperaceae) from Colombia and diversification patterns for the genus". American Journal of Botany. 102 (2): 273–289. doi: 10.3732/ajb.1400427 . ISSN   0002-9122. PMID   25667080.
  2. Hollick, Arthur; Martin, G.C. (1930). "The Upper Cretaceous floras of Alaska, with a description of the plant-bearing beds". Professional Paper. doi:10.3133/pp159. ISSN   2330-7102.
  3. "Yukok_Koyukuk_2_Geology". clamp.ibcas.ac.cn. Retrieved 2023-06-19.
  4. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (2007): 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Archived 2018-05-08 at the Wayback Machine . IUCN, Gland.
  5. Chester F. Gorman (1969). "Hoabinhian: a pebble tool complex with early plant associations in Southeast Asia". Science . 163 (3868): 671–673. Bibcode:1969Sci...163..671G. doi:10.1126/science.163.3868.671. PMID   17742735. S2CID   34052655.
  6. Chester F. Gorman (1971). "The Hoabinhian and after: subsistence patterns in Southeast Asia during the Late Pleistocene and Early Recent periods". World Archaeology . 2 (3): 300–320. doi:10.1080/00438243.1971.9979482. JSTOR   124120.
  7. Apicius: Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome. 2009-08-19. Retrieved December 9, 2018.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
  8. John Parkinson (1640). Theatrum Botanicum: the Theater of Plants. London: T. Cotes.
  9. Charmaine Solomon (1998). "Cha plu". Encyclopedia of Asian Food. Periplus Editions.
  10. "Tropical root crops". Earthcare. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
  11. L. Sorrentino; A. Capasso; M. Schmidt (2006). "Safety of ethanolic kava extract: results of a study of chronic toxicity in rats". Phytomedicine . 13 (8): 542–549. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2006.01.006. PMID   16904878.
  12. Steven T. S. Lim; Klaus Dragull; Chung-Shih Tang; Harry C. Bittenbender; Jimmy T. Efird; Pratibha V. Nerurkar (2007). "Effects of kava alkaloid, pipermethystine, and kavalactones on oxidative stress and cytochrome P450 in F-344 rats". Toxicological Sciences . 97 (1): 214–221. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfm035 . PMID   17329236.
  13. L. A. Dyer; A. N. Palmer (2004). Piper: a Model Genus for Studies of Evolution, Chemical Ecology, and Trophic Interactions (PDF). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN   978-0-306-48498-8.
  14. Sen, Sandeep; Dayanandan, Selvadurai; Davis, Thomson; Ganesan, Rengaian; Jagadish, M.R.; Mathew, P.J.; Ravikanth, Gudasalamani (September 2019). "Origin and evolution of the genus Piper in Peninsular India" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 138: 102–113. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2019.05.033. ISSN   1055-7903. PMID   31132521. S2CID   167218493.
  15. Khan, IA.; et al. (2006). "Piperine, a Phytochemical Potentiator of Ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 50 (2): 810–812. doi:10.1128/aac.50.2.810-812.2006. PMC   1366922 . PMID   16436753.
  16. Kumar, A.; et al. (2008). "Novel structural analogues of piperine as inhibitors of the NorA efflux pump of Staphylococcus aureus". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 61 (6): 1270–1276. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkn088 . PMID   18334493.
  17. Dwivedi, D.; et al. (2016). "Effects of the natural compounds embelin and piperine on the biofilm-producing property of Streptococcus mutans". Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. 6 (1): 57–61. doi:10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.11.025. PMC   4738039 . PMID   26870681.
  18. Tharmalingam, N.; Kim, SH.; Park, M. (2014). "Inhibitory effect of piperine on Helicobacter pylori growth and adhesion to gastric adenocarcinoma cells". Infectious Agents and Cancer. 16 (9): 43. doi: 10.1186/1750-9378-9-43 . PMC   4290101 . PMID   25584066.
  19. Tharmalingam, N.; Park, M.; LEE, M.H (2016). "Piperine treatment suppresses Helicobacter pylori toxin entry in to gastric epithelium and minimizes β-catenin mediated oncogenesis and IL-8 secretion in vitro". American Journal of Translational Research. 15 (8): 885–98. PMC   4846933 . PMID   27158376.
  20. Scott, I. M.; Jensen, H.; Nicol, R.; Lesage, L.; Bradbury, R.; Sánchez-Vindas, P.; Poveda, L.; Arnason, J. T.; Philogène, B. J. R. (August 2004). "Efficacy of Piper (Piperaceae) extracts for control of common home and garden insect pests". Journal of Economic Entomology. 97 (4): 1390–1403. doi:10.1093/jee/97.4.1390. ISSN   0022-0493. PMID   15384353.
  21. Monkey Insect Repellent | The Life of Mammals | BBC Earth , retrieved 2023-09-25
  22. 1 2 M. Alejandra Jaramillo; Paul S. Manos (2001). "Phylogeny and patterns of floral diversity in the genus Piper (Piperaceae)". American Journal of Botany . 88 (4): 706–716. doi:10.2307/2657072. JSTOR   2657072. PMID   11302858.