Ecology and evolutionary biology

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Ecology and evolutionary biology is an interdisciplinary field of study concerning interactions between organisms and their ever-changing environment, including perspectives from both evolutionary biology and ecology. This field of study includes topics such as the way organisms respond and evolve, as well as the relationships among animals, plants, and micro-organisms, when their habitats change. [1] Ecology and evolutionary biology is a broad field of study that covers various ranges of ages and scales, which can also help us to comprehend human impacts on the global ecosystem and find measures to achieve more sustainable development.

Contents

Examples of current research topics

Birdsong

There is a number of acoustic research about birds. Birds learn to sing in specific patterns because birdsong conveys information to select partners, which is a result of evolution. However, this evolution is also affected by ecological factors. [2] Research with recorded birdsong of male white-crowned sparrows from different regions found that the birdsongs from the same location have the same traits, while birdsongs from different locations are more likely to have different song types. Birdsongs from areas with dense vegetation tend to only have slow trilling sounds and low frequencies, while birdsongs from more open areas have fast trilling sounds and higher frequencies. [3] This is probably due to differences in the propagation of sound through vegetation. Low frequencies can be heard from further away when going through dense vegetation than high frequencies. For that reason it would be an advantage for birds who live in dense vegetation to sing at lower frequencies. That way, their songs can still be heard by competitors and potential mates far away.

Something similar was found in birds living on a mountain. The birds who lived higher up were singing at higher frequencies. This was probably due to the higher parts of the mountain being colder and therefore fewer other species living there. Other animals also make sounds with which the birds would have to compete, so when there are less species, there are less high frequency sounds to compete with. [4]

A collection of snails from a polymorphic population of Cepaea nemoralis in Poland Collection of polymorphic snails of Cepaea nemoralis.png
A collection of snails from a polymorphic population of Cepaea nemoralis in Poland

Snail colour

The colour and ornamentation of the snails' shells are almost entirely determined by their genes. One kind of land snail, Cepaea nemoralis , which is very common in Europe, has been studied and found to have a few different colours and a different amount of dark bands on their shells. In a large citizen science project 'the Evolution Mega-Lab', citizens of many different countries throughout Europe collected snails and counted how many snails of a certain colour/band pattern were present in a certain habitat.

Some colours can be seen better by birds, which is one way in which the best camouflaged snails are selected for. This also depends on the habitat in which the snails live. For instance yellow snails living in the dunes are better camouflaged than brown snails. [5] Another reason that one colour of shell might be better in a certain habitat is because of the temperature. It was found that darker shells absorb more heat, which can be a risk for overheating of the snail in certain habitats like dunes. In those places lighter coloured snails were found more often. [6]

Urban evolution

With fast growing cities and high rates of urbanization a whole new kind of environment has emerged. The urban ecosystem is a place of extremities and makes for fast evolution. Higher rates of phenotypic change have been observed in urban areas compared to natural and nonurban anthropogenic systems. [7] A field of study has emerged regarding urban evolution in which the adaptations of animals and plants to urban environments are studied.

In tropical regions a certain species of lizards, Anolis cristatellus , lives in both urban and natural areas. These lizards climb on tree trunks, fences and the walls of buildings. In urban areas more slippery and smooth surfaces are found than in natural areas. This creates a higher risk of falling and dying. The lizards in cities were found to have adapted to these slippery surfaces, by developing longer limbs and more lamellae under their feet that help them to run safely on these smooth surfaces. [8]

One of the differences between urban areas and natural areas is anthropogenic noise, such as traffic noise. The frequencies of these sounds overlap partly with the frequencies of bird songs. In cities, birds started to sing at higher frequencies than they do in natural areas, in order to still be heard by their conspecifics. Their songs were also found to be shorter. [9] This is a way in which the birds adapt to the new urban environment.

An example of urban evolution in plants was found in Crepis sancta . This plant makes seeds with pappus that can travel with the wind, for seed dispersal. In urban environments green patches are very rare and are also often very small and far apart. Due to this, the chances of the seeds landing on asphalt or stone and not being able to sprout are way higher than in open fields. Crepis sancta makes both light seeds with pappus as well as heavier seeds without pappus. In the city the plants were found to make more heavy seeds in comparison to the plants in nonurban areas. [10] This makes sense from an evolutionary perspective since heavy seeds fall very close to the mother-plant, probably in the same green patch, and therefore have a higher chance of sprouting.

Another characteristic of urban areas is light pollution. One of the well known consequences of light pollution is the attraction of insects. Before the presence of human light, the only source of light at night was the moon. Insects fly with a fixed angle to the moon to be able to fly in a straight line. Our light sources, however, are very close by. So if an insect flies with a fixed angle compared to a street light for instance, he starts flying in circles and eventually ends up circling the street light, which reduces his chances of finding food and a mating partner. Urban moths were found to have a reduced attraction to light sources, which directly impacts their chances for survival and mating by not wasting time close to a light source. [11]

Degrees in North America

Some North American universities are home to degree programs titled Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, offering integrated studies in the disciplines of ecology and evolutionary biology. The wording is intended as representing the alternative approach from the frequently used pairing of Cell and Molecular Biology, while being more inclusive than the terminology of Botany or Zoology. Recently, due to advances in the fields of genetics and molecular biology, research and education in ecology and evolutionary biology has integrated many molecular techniques.

A program that focuses on the relationships and interactions that range across levels of biological organization based on a scientific study is Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. The origins and history of ecosystems, species, genes and genomes, and organisms, and how these have changed over time is all part of the studies of how biodiversity has evolved and how it takes place. Ecology and Evolutionary biology in North America is based on research impact determined by the top 10% of ecology programs. The interactive web of organisms and environment are all part of what the field of Ecology explores. There have been studies in evolution that have worked to prove that "modern organisms have developed from ancestral ones." The reason that evolutionary biology is so interesting to learn about is because of the evolutionary processes that is the reason we have such a diversity of life on Earth.There are many processes that make up evolutionary biology that give great insight to how we came to be, some of which include natural selection, speciation, and common descent.


Among the best-known Ph.D.-granting departments that use this name are

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of biology</span> Outline of subdisciplines within biology

Biology – The natural science that studies life. Areas of focus include structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolutionary biology</span> Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life

Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth. It is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. Evolution holds that all species are related and gradually change over generations. In a population, the genetic variations affect the phenotypes of an organism. These changes in the phenotypes will be an advantage to some organisms, which will then be passed on to their offspring. Some examples of evolution in species over many generations are the peppered moth and flightless birds. In the 1930s, the discipline of evolutionary biology emerged through what Julian Huxley called the modern synthesis of understanding, from previously unrelated fields of biological research, such as genetics and ecology, systematics, and paleontology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polymorphism (biology)</span> Occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms in the population of a species

In biology, polymorphism is the occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms, also referred to as alternative phenotypes, in the population of a species. To be classified as such, morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time and belong to a panmictic population.

Balancing selection refers to a number of selective processes by which multiple alleles are actively maintained in the gene pool of a population at frequencies larger than expected from genetic drift alone. Balancing selection is rare compared to purifying selection. It can occur by various mechanisms, in particular, when the heterozygotes for the alleles under consideration have a higher fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biological dispersal</span> Movement of individuals from their birth site to a breeding site

Biological dispersal refers to both the movement of individuals from their birth site to their breeding site, as well as the movement from one breeding site to another . Dispersal is also used to describe the movement of propagules such as seeds and spores. Technically, dispersal is defined as any movement that has the potential to lead to gene flow. The act of dispersal involves three phases: departure, transfer, settlement and there are different fitness costs and benefits associated with each of these phases. Through simply moving from one habitat patch to another, the dispersal of an individual has consequences not only for individual fitness, but also for population dynamics, population genetics, and species distribution. Understanding dispersal and the consequences both for evolutionary strategies at a species level, and for processes at an ecosystem level, requires understanding on the type of dispersal, the dispersal range of a given species, and the dispersal mechanisms involved. Biological dispersal can be correlated to population density. The range of variations of a species' location determines expansion range.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolutionary ecology</span> Interaction of biology and evolution

Evolutionary ecology lies at the intersection of ecology and evolutionary biology. It approaches the study of ecology in a way that explicitly considers the evolutionary histories of species and the interactions between them. Conversely, it can be seen as an approach to the study of evolution that incorporates an understanding of the interactions between the species under consideration. The main subfields of evolutionary ecology are life history evolution, sociobiology, the evolution of interspecific interactions and the evolution of biodiversity and of ecological communities.

Arthur James Cain FRS was a British evolutionary biologist and ecologist. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1989.

<i>Cepaea nemoralis</i> Species of gastropod

The grove snail, brown-lipped snail or lemon snail is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenotypic plasticity</span> Trait change of an organism in response to environmental variation

Phenotypic plasticity refers to some of the changes in an organism's behavior, morphology and physiology in response to a unique environment. Fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with environmental variation, phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes that may or may not be permanent throughout an individual's lifespan.

<i>Crepis</i> Genus of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae

Crepis, commonly known in some parts of the world as hawksbeard or hawk's-beard, is a genus of annual and perennial flowering plants of the family Asteraceae superficially resembling the dandelion, the most conspicuous difference being that Crepis usually has branching scapes with multiple heads. The genus name Crepis derives from the Greek krepis, meaning "slipper" or "sandal", possibly in reference to the shape of the fruit.

Sensory ecology is a relatively new field focusing on the information organisms obtain about their environment. It includes questions of what information is obtained, how it is obtained, and why the information is useful to the organism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Evolutionary mismatch</span> Scientific concept

Evolutionary mismatch is the evolutionary biology concept that a previously advantageous trait may become maladaptive due to change in the environment, especially when change is rapid. It is said this can take place in humans as well as other animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community (ecology)</span> Associated populations of species in a given area

In ecology, a community is a group or association of populations of two or more different species occupying the same geographical area at the same time, also known as a biocoenosis, biotic community, biological community, ecological community, or life assemblage. The term community has a variety of uses. In its simplest form it refers to groups of organisms in a specific place or time, for example, "the fish community of Lake Ontario before industrialization".

<i>Cepaea</i> Genus of gastropods

Cepaea is a genus of large air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs in the family Helicidae. The shells are often brightly coloured and patterned with brown stripes. The two species in this genus, C. nemoralis and C. hortensis, are widespread and common in Western and Central Europe and have been introduced to North America. Both have been influential model species for ongoing studies of genetics and natural selection. Like many Helicidae, these snails use love darts during mating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medium ground finch</span> Species of bird

The medium ground finch is a species of bird in the family Thraupidae. It is endemic to the Galapagos Islands. Its primary natural habitat is tropical shrubland. One of Darwin's finches, the species was the first which scientists have observed evolving in real-time.

An extreme environment is a habitat that is considered very hard to survive in due to its considerably extreme conditions such as temperature, accessibility to different energy sources or under high pressure. For an area to be considered an extreme environment, it must contain certain conditions and aspects that are considered very hard for other life forms to survive. Pressure conditions may be extremely high or low; high or low content of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; high levels of radiation, acidity, or alkalinity; absence of water; water containing a high concentration of salt; the presence of sulphur, petroleum, and other toxic substances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban wildlife</span> Wildlife that can live or thrive in urban environments

Urban wildlife is wildlife that can live or thrive in urban/suburban environments or around densely populated human settlements such as townships.

Ecomorphology or ecological morphology is the study of the relationship between the ecological role of an individual and its morphological adaptations. The term "morphological" here is in the anatomical context. Both the morphology and ecology exhibited by an organism are directly or indirectly influenced by their environment, and ecomorphology aims to identify the differences. Current research places emphasis on linking morphology and ecological niche by measuring the performance of traits associated behaviours, and fitness outcomes of the relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soundscape ecology</span> Study of the effect of environmental sound on organisms

Soundscape ecology is the study of the acoustic relationships between living organisms, human and other, and their environment, whether the organisms are marine or terrestrial. First appearing in the Handbook for Acoustic Ecology edited by Barry Truax, in 1978, the term has occasionally been used, sometimes interchangeably, with the term acoustic ecology. Soundscape ecologists also study the relationships between the three basic sources of sound that comprise the soundscape: those generated by organisms are referred to as the biophony; those from non-biological natural categories are classified as the geophony, and those produced by humans, the anthropophony.

Urban evolution refers to the heritable genetic changes of populations in response to urban development and anthropogenic activities in urban areas. Urban evolution can be caused by mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, or evolution by natural selection. Biologists have observed evolutionary change in numerous species compared to their rural counterparts on a relatively short timescale.

References

  1. ↑ Tim Clutton-Brock, Ben C Sheldon. (2010). Individuals and populations: the role of long-term, individual-based studies of animals in ecology and evolutionary biology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol.25 No.10, 562-573. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.08.002
  2. ↑ Fernando Nottebohm, Wan-Chun Liu. (2010). The origins of vocal learning: New sounds, new circuits, new cells. Brain & Language 115, 3-17.doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2010.05.002
  3. ↑ Elizabeth P. Derryberry. (2009). Ecology Shapes Birdsong Evolution: Variation in Morphology and Habitat Explains Variation in White-Crowned Sparrow Song. the american naturalist vol. 174, no. 1
  4. ↑ W. Halfwerk, C. Dingle, D. M. Brinkhuizen, J. W. Poelstra, J. Komdeur, H. Slabbekoorn. (2016). Sharp acoustic boundaries across an altitudinal avian hybrid zone despite asymmetric introgression. European Society for Evolutionary Biology. J. Evol. Biol. 29, 1356–1367, doi: 10.1111/jeb.12876
  5. ↑ A. J. Cain, P. M. Sheppard. (1953). Natural Selection In Cepaea. Genetics 39-89
  6. ↑ D. J. Heath. (1974). Colour, Sunlight and Internal Temperatures in the Land-Snail Cepaea nemoralis (L.). Oecologia (Berl.). 19, 29-38.
  7. ↑ Alberti, M., Correa, C., Marzluff, J. M., Hendry, A. P., Palkovacs, E. P., Gotanda, K. M., . . . Zhou, Y. (2017). Global urban signatures of phenotypic change in animal and plant populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(34), 8951-8956. doi:10.1073/pnas.1606034114
  8. ↑ Winchell, K. M., Reynolds, R. G., Prado-Irwin, S. R., Puente-Rolón, A. R., & Revell, L. J. (2016). Phenotypic shifts in urban areas in the tropical lizardAnolis cristatellus. Evolution, 70(5), 1009-1022. doi:10.1111/evo.12925
  9. ↑ Slabbekoorn, H., & Boer-Visser, A. D. (2006). Cities Change the Songs of Birds. Current Biology, 16(23), 2326-2331. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.10.008
  10. ↑ Cheptou, P., Carrue, O., Rouifed, S., & Cantarel, A. (2008). Rapid evolution of seed dispersal in an urban environment in the weed Crepis sancta. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(10), 3796-3799. doi:10.1073/pnas.0708446105
  11. ↑ Altermatt, F., & Ebert, D. (2016). Reduced flight-to-light behaviour of moth populations exposed to long-term urban light pollution. Biology Letters, 12(4), 20160111. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2016.0111
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