Chives

Last updated

Chives
Allium schoenoprasum - Bombus lapidarius - Tootsi.jpg
386 Allium schoenoprasum.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Amaryllidaceae
Subfamily: Allioideae
Genus: Allium
Species:
A. schoenoprasum
Binomial name
Allium schoenoprasum
L.
Synonyms [2]
Synonymy
  • Cepa schoenoprasa(L.) Moench
  • Ascalonicum schoenoprasum(L.) P.Renault
  • Allium gredenseRivas Goday
  • Porrum schoenoprasum(L.) Schur
  • Schoenoprasum vulgareFourr.
  • Allium sibiricumL.
  • Allium palustreChaix
  • Allium tenuifoliumSalisb.
  • Allium foliosumClairv. ex DC.
  • Allium acutumSpreng.
  • Allium tenuifoliumPohl
  • Cepa tenuifolia(Salisb.) Gray
  • Allium reflexumF.Dietr.
  • Allium ripariumOpiz
  • Allium carneumSchult. & Schult.f.
  • Allium alpinum(DC.) Hegetschw.
  • Allium broteriKunth
  • Allium punctulatumSchltdl.
  • Porrum sibiricum(L.) Schur
  • Allium buhseanumRegel
  • Allium raddeanumRegel
  • Allium purpurascensLosa
  • Allium idzuenseH.Hara
  • Allium udinicumAntsupova
  • Allium ubinicumKotukhov
Chives, raw
Cocinando.jpg
Cut chive leaves as used for preparing food
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 126 kJ (30 kcal)
4.35 g
Sugars 1.85 g
Dietary fiber 2.5 g
Fat
0.73 g
3.27 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
24%
218 μg
24%
2612 μg
323 μg
Thiamine (B1)
7%
0.078 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
9%
0.115 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.647 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
6%
0.324 mg
Vitamin B6
8%
0.138 mg
Folate (B9)
26%
105 μg
Vitamin C
65%
58.1 mg
Vitamin E
1%
0.21 mg
Vitamin K
177%
212.7 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
7%
92 mg
Iron
9%
1.6 mg
Magnesium
10%
42 mg
Manganese
16%
0.373 mg
Phosphorus
5%
58 mg
Potassium
10%
296 mg
Zinc
5%
0.56 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [3] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [4]
Chive flower close-up.jpg
Flower with bud
Allium schoenoprasum W.jpg
Fully open flower
Chive seeds Allium.schoenoprasum.seeds.jpg
Chive seeds
Chive seedlings sprouting Chive seedlings sprouting.jpg
Chive seedlings sprouting

Chives, scientific name Allium schoenoprasum, is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaryllidaceae that produces edible leaves and flowers. [5] Their close relatives include the common onions, garlic, shallot, leek, scallion, [6] and Chinese onion. [7]

Contents

A perennial plant, it is widespread in nature across much of Europe, Asia, and North America. [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]

A. schoenoprasum is the only species of Allium native to both the New and the Old Worlds. [14] [15]

Chives are a commonly used herb and can be found in grocery stores or grown in home gardens. In culinary use, the green stalks (scapes) and the unopened, immature flower buds are diced and used as an ingredient for omelettes, fish, potatoes, soups, and many other dishes. The edible flowers can be used in salads. [16] Chives have insect-repelling properties that can be used in gardens to control pests. [17]

The plant provides a great deal of nectar for pollinators. It was rated in the top 10 for most nectar production (nectar per unit cover per year) in a UK plants survey conducted by the AgriLand project which is supported by the UK Insect Pollinators Initiative. [18]

Description

Chives are a bulb-forming herbaceous perennial plant, growing to 30–50 cm (12–20 in) tall. The bulbs are slender, conical, 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) long and 1 cm (1⁄2 in) broad, and grow in dense clusters from the roots. The scapes (or stems) are hollow and tubular, up to 50 cm (20 in) long and 2–3 mm (1⁄16–1⁄8 in) across, with a soft texture, although, prior to the emergence of a flower, they may appear stiffer than usual. The grass-like [16] leaves, which are shorter than the scapes, are also hollow and tubular, or terete, (round in cross-section) which distinguishes it at a glance from garlic chives (Allium tuberosum).

The flowers are pale purple, and star-shaped with six petals, 1–2 cm (1⁄2–3⁄4 in) wide, and produced in a dense inflorescence of 10–30 together; before opening, the inflorescence is surrounded by a papery bract. The seeds are produced in a small, three-valved capsule, maturing in summer. The herb flowers from April to May in the southern parts of its habitat zones and in June in the northern parts. [19] [20]

Chives are the only species of Allium native to both the New and the Old Worlds. [21] Sometimes, the plants found in North America are classified as A. schoenoprasum var. sibiricum, although this is disputed. Differences between specimens are significant. One example was found in northern Maine growing solitary, instead of in clumps, also exhibiting dingy grey flowers. [22]

Although chives are repulsive to insects in general, due to their sulfur compounds, their flowers attract bees, and they are at times kept to increase desired insect life. [23]

Taxonomy

It was formally described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in his seminal publication Species Plantarum in 1753. [2] [24]

The name of the species derives from the Greek σχοίνος, skhoínos (sedge or rush) and πράσον, práson (leek). [25] Its English name, chives, derives from the French word cive, from cepa, the Latin word for onion. [26] [16] In the Middle Ages, it was known as 'rush leek'. [16]

Some subspecies have been proposed, but are not accepted by Plants of the World Online, as of July 2021, which sinks them into the species:

Varieties have also been proposed, including A. schoenoprasum var. sibiricum. The Flora of North America notes that the species is very variable, and considers recognition of varieties as "unsound". [11]

Distribution and habitat

Chives are native to temperate areas of Europe, Asia and North America. [29]

Range

Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804) Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 24, page 008 - Qian Cong - Allium schoenoprasum L., 1804.jpg
Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)

It is found in Asia within the Caucasus (in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia), also in China, Iran, Iraq, Japan (within the islands of Hokkaido and Honshu), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russian Federation (within the krais of Kamchatka, Khabarovsk, and Primorye) Siberia and Turkey. [29]

In middle Europe, it is found within Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Switzerland. In northern Europe, in Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In southeastern Europe, within Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Romania. It is also found in southwestern Europe, in France, Portugal and Spain. [29]

In North America, it is found in Canada (within the provinces and territories of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nunavut, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan and Yukon), and the United States (within the states of Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming). [29]

Uses

Culinary arts

Chives are grown for their scapes and leaves, which are used for culinary purposes as a flavoring herb, and provide a somewhat milder onion-like flavor than those of other Allium species. [30]

Chives have a wide variety of culinary uses, such as in traditional dishes in France, Sweden, and elsewhere. [31] In his 1806 book Attempt at a Flora (Försök til en flora), Anders Jahan Retzius describes how chives are used with pancakes, soups, fish, and sandwiches. [31] They are also an ingredient of the gräddfil sauce with the traditional herring dish served at Swedish midsummer celebrations. The flowers may also be used to garnish dishes. [32]

In Poland and Germany, chives are served with quark. Chives are one of the fines herbes of French cuisine, the others being tarragon, chervil and parsley. Chives can be found fresh at most markets year-round, making them readily available; they can also be dry-frozen without much impairment to the taste, giving home growers the opportunity to store large quantities harvested from their own gardens. [26]

Uses in plant cultivation

Retzius also describes how farmers would plant chives between the rocks making up the borders of their flowerbeds, to keep the plants free from pests (such as Japanese beetles). [31] [33] The growing plant repels unwanted insect life, and the juice of the leaves can be used for the same purpose, as well as fighting fungal infections, mildew, and scab. [34] [35] [36]

Cultivation

Chives are cultivated both for their culinary uses and for their ornamental value; the violet flowers are often used in ornamental dry bouquets. [37] The flowers are also edible and are used in salads, [38] or used to make blossom vinegars. [39]

Chives thrive in well-drained soil, rich in organic matter, with a pH of 6–7 and full sun. [13] They can be grown from seed and mature in summer, or early the following spring. Typically, chives need to be germinated at a temperature of 15 to 20 °C (60 to 70 °F) and kept moist. They can also be planted under a cloche or germinated indoors in cooler climates, then planted out later. After at least four weeks, the young shoots should be ready to be planted out. They are also easily propagated by division. [40]

In cold regions, chives die back to the underground bulbs in winter, with the new leaves appearing in early spring. Chives starting to look old can be cut back to about 2–5 cm. When harvesting, the needed number of stalks should be cut to the base. [40] During the growing season, the plant continually regrows leaves, allowing for a continuous harvest. [40]

Chives are susceptible to damage by leek moth larvae, which bore into the leaves or bulbs of the plant. [41]

History and cultural importance

Chives have been cultivated in Europe since the Middle Ages (from the fifth until the 15th centuries), although their usage dates back 5,000 years. [26] They were sometimes referred to as "rush leeks". [42]

It was mentioned in 80 A.D. by Marcus Valerius Martialis in his "Epigrams".

He who bears chives on his breath, Is safe from being kissed to death. [14] [ better source needed ]

The Romans believed chives could relieve the pain from sunburn or a sore throat. They believed eating chives could increase blood pressure and act as a diuretic. [43]

Romani have used chives in fortune telling. [44] Bunches of dried chives hung around a house were believed to ward off disease and evil. [45] [14]

In the 19th century, Dutch farmers fed cattle on the herb to give a different taste to their milk. [14]

Related Research Articles

<i>Allium ursinum</i> Species of flowering plant in the family Amaryllidaceae

Allium ursinum, known as wild garlic, ramsons, cowleekes, cows's leek, cowleek, buckrams, broad-leaved garlic, wood garlic, bear leek, Eurasian wild garlic or bear's garlic, is a bulbous perennial flowering plant in the amaryllis family Amaryllidaceae. It is native to Europe and Asia, where it grows in moist woodland. It is a wild relative of onion and garlic, all belonging to the same genus, Allium. There are two recognized subspecies: A. ursinum subsp. ursinum and A. ursinum subsp. ucrainicum.

<i>Allium tuberosum</i> Species of onion native to southwestern parts of the Chinese province of Shanxi

Allium tuberosum is a species of plant native to the Chinese province of Shanxi, and cultivated and naturalized elsewhere in Asia and around the world.

<i>Allium tricoccum</i> Species of wild onion

Allium tricoccum is a bulbous perennial flowering plant in the amaryllis family Amaryllidaceae. It is a North American species of wild onion or garlic widespread across eastern Canada and the eastern United States. Many of the common English names for this plant are also used for other Allium species, particularly the similar Allium ursinum, which is native to Europe and Asia. An edible plant, Allium tricoccum is used in a variety of North American and indigenous cuisines, and has also been used by Native Americans in traditional medicine. A French rendering (chicagou) of a Native American name for this plant is the namesake of the American city of Chicago.

<i>Allium vineale</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium vineale is a perennial, bulb-forming species of wild onion, native to Europe, northwestern Africa and the Middle East. The species was introduced in Australia and North America, where it has become an Invasive species.

<i>Allium canadense</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium canadense, the Canada onion, Canadian garlic, wild garlic, meadow garlic and wild onion is a perennial plant native to eastern North America from Texas to Florida to New Brunswick to Montana. The species is also cultivated in other regions as an ornamental and as a garden culinary herb. The plant is also reportedly naturalized in Cuba.

<i>Allium ampeloprasum</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium ampeloprasum is a member of the onion genus Allium. The wild plant is commonly known as wild leek or broadleaf wild leek. Its native range is southern Europe to southwestern Asia and North Africa, but it is cultivated in many other places and has become naturalized in many countries.

<i>Allium sphaerocephalon</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium sphaerocephalon is a plant species in the Amaryllis family known as round-headed leek, round-headed garlic, ball-head onion, and other variations on these names. Drumstick allium is another common name applied to this species. Some publications use the alternate spelling Allium sphaerocephalum. It is a bulbous herbaceous perennial plant.

<i>Allium anceps</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium anceps, known as twinleaf onion and Kellogg's onion, is a species of wild onion native to the western United States. It is widespread in Nevada, extending into adjacent parts of California, Idaho, and Oregon. It grows in barren clay and rocky soils.

<i>Allium monanthum</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium monanthum, the Korean wild chive, is a spring vegetable with minuscule bulbous roots that have a mild onion flavor and found in the woodlands of Korea, Japan, northeastern Russia (Primorye), and northeastern China.

<i>Allium cernuum</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium cernuum, known as nodding onion or lady's leek, is a perennial plant in the genus Allium. It grows in open areas in North America.

<i>Allium moly</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium moly, also known as yellow garlic, golden garlic and lily leek, Is a species of flowering plant in the genus Allium, which also includes the flowering and culinary onions and garlic. A bulbous herbaceous perennial from the Mediterranean, it is edible and also used as a medicinal and ornamental plant.

<i>Allium triquetrum</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium triquetrum is a bulbous flowering plant in the genus Allium native to the Mediterranean basin. It is known in English as three-cornered leek or three-cornered garlic, in Australia as angled onion and in New Zealand as onion weed. Both the English name and the specific epithet triquetrum refer to the three-cornered shape of the flower stalks.

<i>Allium acuminatum</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium acuminatum, also known as the tapertip onion or Hooker's onion, is a species in the genus Allium native to North America.

<i>Allium peninsulare</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium peninsulare is a North American species of wild onion. It is known by such common names as Mexicali onion and Peninsula onion; the former referring to the Mexican city just south of the US/Mexican border, the latter referring to the Peninsula of Baja California. It is widespread in California, USA, where it grows in the California Coast Ranges, Sierra Nevada foothills, some of the Channel Islands, and Peninsular Ranges. The range extends south into the northernmost part of Baja California and north into southern Oregon.

<i>Allium stellatum</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium stellatum, commonly known as the autumn onion, prairie onion, cliff onion, or glade onion, is a North American species of wild onion in the Amaryllidaceae family that is native to central Canada and the central United States.

<i>Allium macrostemon</i> Species of wild onion widespread across much of East Asia

Allium macrostemon, Chinese garlic, Japanese garlic or long-stamen onion, is a species of wild onion widespread across much of East Asia. It is known from many parts of China, as well as Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet and Primorye. It has been collected from elevations ranging from sea level to 3000 m.

<i>Allium nutans</i> Species of flowering plant

Allium nutans, English common name Siberian chives or blue chives, is a species of onion native to European Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Asiatic Russia. It grows in wet meadows and other damp locations.

Allium spirale, also known as Korean aging chive, is a plant species native to Korea, Primorye, and parts of China. It is cultivated in many other regions and has for some reason obtained the common name German garlic. Other common names include spiral onion, corkscrew onion, and curly chives.

<i>Allium</i> Genus of flowering plants in the family Amaryllidaceae

Allium is a genus of monocotyledonous flowering plants with hundreds of species, including the cultivated onion, garlic, scallion, shallot, leek, and chives. The generic name Allium is the Latin word for garlic, and the type species for the genus is Allium sativum which means "cultivated garlic".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leek</span> Vegetable in the onion family

A leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, the broadleaf wild leek. The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus Allium also contains the onion, garlic, shallot, scallion, chives, and Chinese onion. Three closely related vegetables, elephant garlic, kurrat and Persian leek or tareh, are also cultivars of A. ampeloprasum, although different in their uses as food.

References

  1. ↑ Maxted, N. & Rhodes, L. (2016). Allium schoenoprasum. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T172256A19391728. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T172256A19391728.en Downloaded on 05 January 2019.
  2. 1 2 "Allium schoenoprasum L. is an accepted name". theplantlist.org. 23 March 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
  3. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" . Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  4. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ↑ LaFray, Joyce (1987). Tropic Cooking: The New Cuisine from Florida and the Islands of the Caribbean. Oakland: Ten Speed Press. p. 292. ISBN   0-89815-234-8.
  6. ↑ Block, E. (2010). Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN   978-0-85404-190-9.
  7. ↑ "AllergyNet — Allergy Advisor Find". Allallergy.net. Archived from the original on June 15, 2010. Retrieved April 14, 2010.
  8. ↑ "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew". kew.org.
  9. ↑ "Allium schoenoprasum in Flora of China @ efloras.org". www.efloras.org. Retrieved 2017-06-18.
  10. ↑ Tardiff, B.; Morisset, P. (1990). "Clinal morphological variation of Allium schoenoprasum in eastern North America". Taxon. 39 (3): 417–429. doi:10.2307/1223088. JSTOR   1223088.
  11. 1 2 "Allium schoenoprasum in Flora of North America @ efloras.org". www.efloras.org. Retrieved 2017-06-18.
  12. ↑ Altervista Flora Italiana, Erba cipollina, wild chives, Civette, Schnittlauch, Allium schoenoprasum L. includes photos, drawings, European distribution map, etc.
  13. 1 2 "Allium schoenoprasum - Plant Finder". mobot.org.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Ernest Small North American Cornucopia: Top 100 Indigenous Food Plants (2014) , p. 230, at Google Books
  15. ↑ James Cullen, Sabina G. Knees, H. Suzanne Cubey (Editors) The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification , p. 133, at Google Books
  16. 1 2 3 4 Linford, Jenny (2010). A concise guide to herbs. Bath: Parragon. p. 45. ISBN   9781405487993.
  17. ↑ Kaufman, Peter B; Thomas J Carlson; Kaufman B Kaufman; Harry L Brielmann; Sara Warber; Leland J Cseke; James A Duke (1999). Natural Products from Plants . Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp.  261. ISBN   9780849331343. 084933134X.
  18. ↑ "Which flowers are the best source of nectar?". Conservation Grade. 2014-10-15. Archived from the original on 2019-12-14. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
  19. ↑ Allium schoenoprasum factsheet, from Kemper center for home gardening, retrieved on June 13, 2006, based on the position of the botanical Garden (Missouri)
  20. ↑ Creasy, Rosalind (2012-11-27). The Edible Flower Garden. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN   978-1-4629-0617-8.
  21. ↑ "Mushrooms and Egg with Chives". www.valleytable.com. 21 March 2019. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
  22. ↑ McGary, Mary Jane (2001). Bulbs of North America: North American Rock Garden Society. Portland: Timber Press. pp. 28–29. 088192511X.
  23. ↑ Baines. C. Making a Wildlife Garden. 0
  24. ↑ "Alliaceae Allium schoenoprasum L." ipni.org. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
  25. ↑ Anderberg, Anna-Lena. "Den virtuella floran: Allium schoenoprasum L. - Gräslök". nrm.se.
  26. 1 2 3 Trowbridge Filippone, Peggy. "Chive Selection and Storage". About.com Food. Archived from the original on 2008-09-22. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
  27. ↑ "Allium schoenoprasum subsp. gredense (Rivas Goday) Rivas Mart., Fern.Gonz. & Sánchez Mata". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2021-07-12.
  28. ↑ "Allium schoenoprasum subsp. latiorifolium (Pau) Rivas Mart., Fern.Gonz. & Sánchez Mata". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 2021-07-12.
  29. 1 2 3 4 "Taxon: Allium schoenoprasum L." ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
  30. ↑ "Chives Vs. Green Onions". Tastessence. 2010-05-18. Retrieved 2021-05-27.
  31. 1 2 3 Försök til en Flora Oeconomica Sveciæ by A. J. Retzius (1806)
  32. ↑ Allium schoenoprasum, from Mountain valley growers, accessed on June 13, 2006
  33. ↑ Andy Hamilton. "pests – selfsufficientish – pests". selfsufficientish.com.
  34. ↑ Holtom. J. and Hylton. W. Complete Guide to Herbs. Rodale Press 1979 ISBN   0-87857-262-7
  35. ↑ Riotte. L. Companion Planting for Successful Gardening. Garden Way, Vermont, USA. 1978 ISBN   0-88266-064-0
  36. ↑ Huxley. A. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. MacMillan Press 1992 ISBN   0-333-47494-5
  37. ↑ "Flower & Garden Magazine, June-July 1996, The lazy gardener's guide to potpourri". findarticles.com. Archived from the original on 2004-09-23.
  38. ↑ Durand, Faith (23 May 2008). "Tip: How to Use Chive Blossoms in Salads and Other Dishes". thekitchn.com. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  39. ↑ Margaret Roberts Edible & Medicinal Flowers , p. 146, at Google Books
  40. 1 2 3 McGee, Rose Marie Nichols; Stuckey, Maggie (2002). The Bountiful Container. Workman Publishing.
  41. ↑ Landry, Jean-François (June 2007). "Taxonomic review of the leek moth genus Acrolepiopsis (Lepidoptera: Acrolepiidae) in North America". The Canadian Entomologist. 139 (3): 319–353. doi:10.4039/n06-098. ISSN   1918-3240. S2CID   86748199.
  42. ↑ Nicholas Culpeper Culpeper's Complete Herbal, and English Physician (1826) , p. 37, at Google Books
  43. ↑ Staub, Jack E. (2008). 75 Exceptional Herbs for Your Garden. Gibbs Smith. p. 54. ISBN   978-1-4236-0251-4.
  44. ↑ Chives, from "Sally's place", accessed on June 13, 2006
  45. ↑ "Chives". sallys-place.com.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.