Dipteryx odorata

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Dipteryx odorata
Flowering Tonka Bean tree (Dipteryx odorata).jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Genus: Dipteryx
Species:
D. odorata
Binomial name
Dipteryx odorata
Synonyms

Coumarouna odorata Aubl.
Coumarouna tetraphylla(Benth.) Aubl.
Dipteryx tetraphyllaBenth.

Contents

Dipteryx odorata Cumaru (Dipteryx odorata), Vaca Diez, Bolivia 1.jpg
Dipteryx odorata

Dipteryx odorata (commonly known as "cumaru", "kumaru", or "Brazilian teak") is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae. The tree is native to Northern South America [2] and is semi-deciduous. [3] Its seeds are known as tonka beans (sometimes tonkin beans or tonquin beans). They are black and wrinkled and have a smooth, brown interior. They have a strong fragrance similar to sweet woodruff due to their high content of coumarin.

The word tonka is taken from the Galibi (Carib) tongue spoken by natives of French Guiana; it also appears in Tupi, another language of the same region, as the name of the tree. The old genus name, Coumarouna, was formed from another Tupi name for the tree, kumarú. [4]

Many anticoagulant prescription drugs, such as warfarin, are based on 4-hydroxycoumarin, a chemical derivative of coumarin initially isolated from this bean. Coumarin itself, however, does not have anticoagulant properties. [5] [6]

Biology of the tree

The tree grows up to 25–30 m (82–98 ft), with a trunk of up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter. [7] The tree bark is smooth and gray, whereas the wood is red. [8] The tree has alternate pinnate leaves with three to six leaflets, leathery, glossy and dark green, and pink flowers. Each developed fruit contains one seed. D. odorata is pollinated by insects. The worst pests are bats because they eat the pulpy flesh of the fruit. A few known fungi may cause problems: Anthostomella abdita, Diatrype ruficarnis, Macrophoma calvuligera and Myiocopron cubense. [7]

Radio-carbon dating of D. odorata stumps left by a large logging operation near Manaus by Niro Higuchi, Jeffrey Chambers, and Joshua Schimel, showed that it was one of around 100 species which definitely live to over 1,000 years (specifically an age of 1400 years being claimed for this and the unrelated Cariniana macrantha). Until their research, it had been assumed unlikely that any Amazonian tree could live to old age due to the conditions of the rain forest. [9]

Seeds

The tonka seed contains coumarin, a chemical isolate named after the plant. The seeds normally contain about 1 to 3% of coumarin, but can rarely achieve levels up to 10%. [7] Coumarin is responsible for the seed's pleasant odor and is used in the perfume industry. Coumarin is bitter to the taste. In large infused doses, it may cause hemorrhages, liver damage, or paralysis of the heart. [7] It is therefore controlled as a food additive by many governments.[ citation needed ] Like a number of other plants, the tonka bean plant probably produces coumarin as a defense chemical.[ citation needed ]

The smooth brown inside of the tonka bean The smooth brown inside of the tonka bean.jpg
The smooth brown inside of the tonka bean

Uses

Tonka beans have been used as a source of natural coumarin, and, after its synthesis in the 1940s, artificial coumarin became one of the first artificial flavoring agents as a vanilla substitute. [10] The FDA has considered foods containing tonka beans adulterated [11] since 1954 [12] because coumarin has shown toxicity in extremely high concentrations. Despite the ban on its use in foods, the product has been frequently imported into the United States by gastronomic enthusiasts. [10] [13] There have been calls for removing the restrictions on the use of tonka beans in food in the US similar to the successful deregulations of mangosteens and absinthe in the early 21st century; [13] the regulations are criticized as unreasonable due to the unlikelihood of consuming enough coumarin to cause ill effects and due to the presence of coumarin in unregulated foods. [12] Coumarin is also present in lavender, cinnamon, licorice, strawberries, and cherries. [14]

In France, tonka beans are used in cuisine (particularly, in desserts and stews) [12] [10] and in perfumes. The flavor has been described as a complex mix of vanilla, almond, clove, cinnamon, and amaretto. [14] Yves Rocher [15] uses them in their men's perfume Hoggar, for example, and they are still used to flavor some pipe tobaccos, such as Samuel Gawith "1792 Flake." [16]

Many anticoagulant prescription drugs, such as warfarin, are based on 4-hydroxycoumarin, a chemical derivative of coumarin initially isolated from this bean. Coumarin, however, does not have anticoagulant properties. [5] [6]

The beans were formerly also spelled tonquin [17] and tonkin, [18] although neither the tree nor the beans have any connection with Tonkin, which is now part of Vietnam.

Cultivation

Today, the main producers of tonka beans are Venezuela and Nigeria. The cumaru tree is a light-demanding calcifuge tree which grows on poor, well-drained soils. The best growth is reached on fertile soils rich in humus. In the native region there is a mean annual temperature of 25 °C and about 2,000 mm (80 in) rainfall per year, with a dry season from June to November. [19] In general, it has a very low plant density, but depending on the agricultural use, the density and the age of the trees diversify. In seed production systems, the plant density is higher and the trees are older than in timber production systems. [19] The tree flowers from March to May, and the fruits ripen from June to July. [7] So, the fresh fruits are picked up in June and July, and fallen pods are harvested from January to March [7] or sometimes earlier. [8] The hard outer shell is removed and the beans are spread out for 2–3 days to dry, after which they can be sold. [7] The major producer is Venezuela, followed by Brazil and Colombia. The most important importing country is the US, where it is used especially in the tobacco industry. [7]

Social aspects

This species is well known locally and generates an important income for rural families, particularly as a buffer in times of hardship. [8] It is used for timber and nontimber products. The yield of beans per tree is about 1.0–3.5 kg per year, but cumaru trees produce a large volume of seeds every four years. [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myrrh</span> Aromatic resin from the Commiphora myrrha tree

Myrrh is a gum-resin extracted from a few small, thorny tree species of the Commiphora genus, belonging to the Burseraceae family. Myrrh resin has been used throughout history in medicine, perfumery, and incenses. Myrrh mixed with posca or wine was widely used in many ancient cultures to produce pleasurable feelings and as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anticoagulant</span> Class of drugs

An anticoagulant, commonly known as a blood thinner, is a chemical substance that prevents or reduces the coagulation of blood, prolonging the clotting time. Some occur naturally in blood-eating animals, such as leeches and mosquitoes, which help keep the bite area unclotted long enough for the animal to obtain blood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Warfarin</span> Anticoagulant medication

Warfarin is an anticoagulant used as a medication under several brand names including Coumadin. While the drug is described as a "blood thinner", it does not reduce viscosity but rather inhibits coagulation. Accordingly, it is commonly used to prevent blood clots in the circulatory system such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, and to protect against stroke in people who have atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, or artificial heart valves. Less commonly, it is used following ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and orthopedic surgery. It is usually taken by mouth, but may also be administered intravenously.

<i>Cananga odorata</i> Species of tree

Cananga odorata, known as ylang-ylang or cananga tree, is a tropical tree that is native to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Queensland, Australia. It is also native to parts of Thailand and Vietnam. It is valued for the essential oils extracted from its flowers, which has a strong floral fragrance. Ylang-ylang is one of the most extensively used natural materials in the perfume industry, earning it the name "Queen of Perfumes".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coumarin</span> Aromatic chemical compound

Coumarin or 2H-chromen-2-one is an aromatic organic chemical compound with formula C9H6O2. Its molecule can be described as a benzene molecule with two adjacent hydrogen atoms replaced by an unsaturated lactone ring −(CH)=(CH)−(C=O)−O−, forming a second six-membered heterocycle that shares two carbons with the benzene ring. It belongs to the benzopyrone chemical class and considered as a lactone.

<i>Angelica sinensis</i> Species of flowering plant

Angelica sinensis, commonly known as dong quai or female ginseng, is a herb belonging to the family Apiaceae, indigenous to China. Angelica sinensis grows in cool high altitude mountains in East Asia. The yellowish brown root of the plant is harvested in the fall and is a well-known Chinese medicine which has been used for thousands of years.

<i>Dipteryx</i> Genus of legumes

Dipteryx is a genus containing a number of species of large trees and possibly shrubs. It belongs to the "papilionoid" subfamily – Faboideae – of the family Fabaceae. This genus is native to South and Central America and the Caribbean. Formerly, the related genus Taralea was included in Dipteryx.

<i>Melilotus officinalis</i> Plant species in the bean family

Melilotus officinalis, known as sweet yellow clover, yellow melilot, ribbed melilot and common melilot, is a species of legume native to Eurasia and introduced in North America, Africa, and Australia.

<i>Hierochloe odorata</i> Sweet grass, an aromatic herb

Hierochloe odorata or Anthoxanthum nitens is an aromatic herb native to northern Eurasia and North America. It is considered sacred by many Indigenous peoples in Canada and the United States. It is used as a smudge in herbal medicine and in the production of distilled beverages. It owes its distinctive sweet scent to the presence of coumarin.

Tonka bean oil is extracted from the seed of Dipteryx odorata. The oil is composed primarily of coumarin, which is used to flavor tobacco. It is neither a pressed oil, nor an essential oil, but was traditionally obtained by soaking the large, single tonka bean seed in rum or other alcohol for 24 hours, after which crystals of coumarin appear on the outside of the seed, and are then collected. The seeds contain up to 46% oil by dry weight. In recent years, most commercially produced coumarin are synthetic, which has reduced the demand for tonka beans as a crop. Coumarin derivatives are also used medicinally, as anti-coagulants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenprocoumon</span> Drug

Phenprocoumon is a long-acting blood thinner drug to be taken by mouth, and a coumarin derivative. It acts as a vitamin K antagonist and inhibits blood clotting (coagulation) by blocking synthesis of coagulation factors II, VII, IX and X. It is used for the prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic disorders such as heart attacks and pulmonary (lung) embolism. The most common adverse effect is bleeding. The drug interacts with a large number of other medications, including aspirin and St John's Wort. It is the standard coumarin used in Germany, Austria, and other European countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dicoumarol</span> Chemical compound

Dicoumarol (INN) or dicumarol (USAN) is a naturally occurring anticoagulant drug that depletes stores of vitamin K. It is also used in biochemical experiments as an inhibitor of reductases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brodifacoum</span> Chemical compound

Brodifacoum is a highly lethal 4-hydroxycoumarin vitamin K antagonist anticoagulant poison. In recent years, it has become one of the world's most widely used pesticides. It is typically used as a rodenticide, but is also used to control larger pests such as possums.

<i>Dipteryx charapilla</i> Species of legume

Dipteryx charapilla is a little-known species of flowering plant in the family Fabaceae, a large to mid-sized tree growing along rivers in the rainforests of Brazil. and Peru.

<i>Dipteryx alata</i> Species of legume

Dipteryx alata is a large, undomesticated, edible nut-bearing tree from dryish tropical lowlands in central South America belonging to the legume family, Fabaceae, from the Dipterygeae tribe in the Faboideae subfamily. It is a wild species, widespread across the Cerrado savanna in South America. The baru nut seed is a grain legume, growing in popularity in North America as a snack food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">4-Hydroxycoumarin</span> Chemical compound

4-Hydroxycoumarin is a coumarin derivative with a hydroxy group at the 4-position.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nagkesar seed oil</span> Oil from the Nagkesar tree (Mesua ferrea)

Nagkesar oil is extracted from seeds of the nagkesar tree. It belongs to the Calophyllaceae family. It is an East Indian evergreen tree and is often planted as an ornamental for its fragrant white flowers that yield a perfume. It is the source of hardwood used for railroad ties. It is Sri Lanka's national tree.

<i>Clausena anisata</i> Species of flowering plant

Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. is a deciduous shrub or small tree, belonging to the Rutaceae or Citrus family, and widespread in the Afrotropical realm or Sub-Saharan Africa, but absent from the drier regions. It is also found in tropical and South-East Asia, growing in India and Sri Lanka and extending as far as Queensland in north-eastern Australia and some Pacific islands. It is cultivated in Malaysia and Indonesia. As with other plants useful to mankind its large range of medicinal properties has led to a global distribution and its growth wherever the climate is suitable. It grows in higher-rainfall regions in savanna, thickets, riverine forest, disturbed areas and secondary forest, up to an altitude of 3000 m. The leaves, which are foetid when bruised, give rise to the common name 'Horsewood' or the more descriptive Afrikaans common name 'Perdepis', meaning 'horse urine'.

<i>Dipteryx micrantha</i> Species of legume

Dipteryx micrantha is a tropical flowering plant, a giant tree in the Faboideae subfamily of the bean family Fabaceae. It is a dominant emergent tree in parts of the rainforests of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. In the international timber market, this species is traded under the name cumaru. It furnishes a dense, hard, beautiful reddish timber which has become a popular import in the 2010s for use in parquet. The ornamental bunches of lilac pink flowers high in the canopy eventually develop into a mass of large fruit pods, which are an important food for many native animals during the dry season. The fruit contains a single oily seed which is edible, although these seeds are not exploited as a commercial product.

References

  1. ↑ Requena Suarez, D.K. (2017). "Dipteryx odorata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2017: e.T62024955A62024965. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T62024955A62024965.en . Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  2. ↑ Jang, Dae Sik; Park, Eun Jung; Hawthorne, Michael E.; et al. (2003). "Potential Cancer Chemopreventive Constituents of the Seeds of Dipteryx odorata (Tonka Bean)". Journal of Natural Products . 66 (5): 583–587. doi:10.1021/np020522n. PMID   12762787.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ↑ "Semi-deciduous Forest". cristalinolodge.com.br. Cristalino Lodge. Archived from the original on 2020-07-30. Retrieved 2019-10-22.
  4. ↑ "Warfarin, Molecule of the Month for February 2011, by John Maher". www.chm.bris.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-12-20.
  5. 1 2 Goldman, Mitchel P.; Guex, Jean-Jérôme; Weiss, Robert A., eds. (2011). Treatment of Varicose and Telangiectatic Leg Veins (5th ed.). Mosby. ISBN   9780323073677.
  6. 1 2 "Coumarin". sciencedirect.com. 2021.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Duke, James A.; duCellier, Judith L. (1993). CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC Press. pp. 238–239. ISBN   9780849336201.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Shanley, Patricia; da Serra Silva, Murilo; Melo, Tadeu; et al. (2012). "From conflict of use to multiple use: Forest management innovations by small holders in Amazonian logging frontiers". Forest Ecology and Management. 268 (268): 70–80. Bibcode:2012ForEM.268...70S. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.05.041.
  9. ↑ Lewington, Anna; Parker, Edward (1999). Ancient Trees: Trees that Live for a Thousand Years. London: Collins & Brown. p. 64.
  10. 1 2 3 Gorvett, Zaria. "The delicious flavour with a toxic secret". BBC.com. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
  11. ↑ "2006 CFR Title 21, Volume 3" . Retrieved 2009-07-06.
  12. 1 2 3 DeLorenzo, Ike (2010-11-03). "The Tonka Bean: An Ingredient So Good It Has to Be Illegal". The Atlantic . Retrieved 2020-08-17.
  13. 1 2 "When Banning a Food Makes It Sweeter". tastecooking.com. 2018-02-13. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
  14. 1 2 Sula, Mike (December 19, 2017). "It's Illegal to Cook with Tonka Beans in the U.S., but Chefs Do it Anyway". plateonline.com. Retrieved July 28, 2021.
  15. ↑ "Hoggar Eau de toillette". yvesrocher.ca. Yves Rocher.
  16. ↑ "Samuel Gawith - 1792 Flake". TobaccoReviews.com.
  17. ↑ Gaskell, Elizabeth (1851). Cranford .
  18. ↑ "Ate His Chop in Solitude: Tennyson's Aloofness Respected by Fellow Diners at Restaurant He Patronized". The Mt. Sterling Advocate . Mt. Sterling, Kentucky: Harris and Mason. October 6, 1909 – via newspapers.com.
  19. 1 2 Herrero-Jáuregui, Cristina; Sist, Plinio; Casado, Miguel A. (2012). "Population structure of two low-density neotropical tree species under different management systems". Forest Ecology and Management. 280 (208): 31–39. Bibcode:2012ForEM.280...31H. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.06.006.

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