Spice

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Spices
Spices1.jpg
Spices at a central market in Agadir, Morocco
Indianspicesherbs.jpg
A group of Indian herbs and spices in bowls
Spices of Saude flea market, Sao Paulo, Brazil.jpg
Spices of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil

In the culinary arts, a spice is any seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance in a form primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices are sometimes used in medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, or perfume production. They are usually classified into spices, spice seeds, and herbal categories. [1] For example, vanilla is commonly used as an ingredient in fragrance manufacturing. [2] Plant-based sweeteners such as sugar are not considered spices.

Contents

Spices may be used fresh and whole, after drying, grating, chopping, crushing, or grinding, or by extraction into a tincture. Such processing may happen before a spice is offered for sale, while preparing a dish in a kitchen, or after a dish has been presented for consumption (such as peppercorns ground at the table as a condiment). Some spices such as turmeric are seldom available either fresh or whole and so must be purchased in ground form. Small seeds such as fennel or mustard may be used either whole or in powdered form.

A whole dried spice has the longest shelf life, so it can be purchased and stored in larger amounts, making it cheaper on a per-serving basis. A fresh spice, such as ginger, is usually more flavorful than its dried form, but fresh spices are more expensive and have a much shorter shelf life.

There is not enough clinical evidence to indicate that consuming spices affects human health. [3]

India contributes to 75% of global spice production. [4] This is reflected culturally through its cuisine. Historically, the spice trade developed throughout the Indian subcontinent as well as in East Asia and the Middle East. Europe's demand for spices was among the economic and cultural factors that encouraged exploration in the early modern period.

Etymology

The word spice originated in Middle English, [5] from the Old French words espece, espis(c)e, and espis(c)e. [6] According to the Middle English Dictionary , the Old French words came from Anglo-French spece; [6] according to Merriam Webster, the Old-French words came from Anglo-French espece, and espis. [5] Both publications agree that the Anglo-French words are derived from Latin species. [5] [6] Middle English spice had its first known use as a noun in the 13th century. [5]

History

Early history

The spice trade developed throughout the Indian subcontinent [7] and Middle East by 2000 BCE with cinnamon and black pepper, and in East Asia with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for cuisine and mummification. Their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade.

Cloves were used in Mesopotamia by 1700 BCE. [note 1] The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The Ebers Papyrus from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different herbal medicinal remedies and numerous medicinal procedures. [11]

By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India.[ citation needed ] Early uses were associated with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation. [12]

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. Arab merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian port city of Alexandria being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the monsoon winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans. [12]

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the Old Testament. In Genesis, Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In Exodus, manna is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the Song of Solomon, the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.[ citation needed ]

The ancient Indian epic Ramayana mentions cloves.[ citation needed ]

Historians believe that nutmeg, which originates from the Banda Islands in Southeast Asia, was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE. [13] The Romans had cloves in the 1st century CE, as Pliny the Elder wrote about them. [14]

Middle Ages

"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of The Travels of Marco Polo. Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg
"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of The Travels of Marco Polo .

Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the Middle Ages, [5] the most common being black pepper, cinnamon (and the cheaper alternative cassia), cumin, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. Given medieval medicine's main theory of humorism, spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food, [6] on a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent pandemics. In addition to being desired by those using medieval medicine, the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise". [15] An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the King of Aragon, who invested substantial resources into importing spices to Spain in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in wine and was not alone among European monarchs at the time to have such a desire for spice. [16]

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the Republic of Venice held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian maritime republics and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the Late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. [17] The most exclusive was saffron, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include grains of paradise, a relative of cardamom which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, long pepper, mace, spikenard, galangal, and cubeb. [18]

Early modern period

Voyagers from Spain and Portugal were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sailed to India in 1499. [8] When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by Venice. [16] At around the same time, Christopher Columbus returned from the New World. He described to investors the new spices available there. [19] [lower-alpha 1]

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th centuries was the Ragusans from the maritime republic of Dubrovnik in southern Croatia. [20] The military prowess of Afonso de Albuquerque (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of Socotra in the mouth of the Red Sea and, in 1507, Ormuz in the Persian Gulf. Since becoming the viceroy of the Indies, he took Goa in India in 1510, and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with Siam, China, and the Maluku Islands.

With the discovery of the New World came new spices, including allspice, chili peppers, vanilla, and chocolate. This development kept the spice trade, with America as a latecomer with its new seasonings, profitable well into the 19th century. [21]

Function

Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chilli powder, cumin seeds Common Indian spices.jpg
Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chilli powder, cumin seeds

Spices are primarily used as food flavoring or to create variety. [22] They are also used to perfume cosmetics and incense. At various periods, many spices were used in herbal medicine. Finally, since they can be expensive, rare and exotic commodities, their conspicuous consumption has often been a symbol of wealth and social class. [18]

Preservative claim

The most popular explanation for the love of spices in the Middle Ages is that they were used to preserve meat from spoiling, or to cover up the taste of meat that had already gone off. This compelling but false idea constitutes something of an urban legend, a story so instinctively attractive that mere fact seems unable to wipe it out... Anyone who could afford spices could easily find meat fresher than what city dwellers today buy in their local supermarket. [18]

It is often claimed that spices were used either as food preservatives or to mask the taste of spoiled meat, especially in the European Middle Ages. [18] [23] This is false. [24] [25] [26] [18] In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to salting, smoking, pickling, or drying, and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat. [18] Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper. [18] There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever." [27] Indeed, Cristoforo di Messisbugo suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage. [27]

Though some spices have antimicrobial properties in vitro, [28] pepper—by far the most common spice—is relatively ineffective, and in any case, salt, which is far cheaper, is also far more effective. [27]

Classification and types

A plate of Indian herbs and spices Indian spices with labels (garam masala components) (49684333301).jpg
A plate of Indian herbs and spices

Culinary herbs and spices

Botanical basis

Common spice mixtures

Handling

A shelf of common spices for a home kitchen in Canada or the United States Spice-shelf.jpg
A shelf of common spices for a home kitchen in Canada or the United States

Pepper mill Peugeot pepper mill.jpg
Pepper mill

A mortar and pestle is the classic set of tools for grinding a whole spice. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a microplane or fine grater can be used to grind small amounts; a coffee grinder [note 2] is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or mill.

The flavor of a spice is derived in part from compounds (volatile oils) that oxidize or evaporate when exposed to air. Grinding a spice greatly increases its surface area and so increases the rates of oxidation and evaporation. Thus, the flavor is maximized by storing a spice whole and grinding when needed. The shelf life of a whole dry spice is roughly two years; of a ground spice roughly six months. [29] The "flavor life" of a ground spice can be much shorter. [note 3] Ground spices are better stored away from light. [note 4]

Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to herbs which are usually added late in preparation. [29]

Salmonella contamination

A study by the Food and Drug Administration of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant. [30] As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and are present at the table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated. [31] Food irradiation is said to minimize this risk. [32] [33]

Production

Spices and herbs at a shop in Goa, India Spices in an Indian market.jpg
Spices and herbs at a shop in Goa, India
Top Spice Producing Countries
(in metric tonnes)
RankCountry20102011
1India1,474,9001,525,000
2Bangladesh128,517139,775
3Turkey107,000113,783
4China90,00095,890
5Pakistan53,64753,620
6Iran18,02821,307
7Nepal20,36020,905
8Colombia16,99819,378
9Ethiopia27,12217,905
10Sri Lanka8,2938,438
— World 1,995,5232,063,472
Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization [34]

Standardization

The International Organization for Standardization addresses spices and condiments, along with related food additives, as part of the International Classification for Standards 67.220 series. [35]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ A team of archaeologists led by Giorgio Buccellati excavating the ruins of a burned-down house at the site of Terqa, in modern-day Syria, found a ceramic pot containing a handful of cloves. The house had burned down around 1720 BC and this was the first evidence of cloves being used in the west before Roman times. [8] [9] [10]
  2. ↑ Other types of coffee grinders, such as a burr mill, can grind spices just as well as coffee beans.
  3. ↑ Nutmeg, in particular, suffers from grinding and the flavor will degrade noticeably in a matter of days.
  4. ↑ Light contributes to oxidation processes.
  1. ↑ The word "ají" is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethiopian cuisine</span> Culinary tradition

Ethiopian cuisine, which is synonymous with Amhara cultural food, characteristically consists of vegetable and often very spicy meat dishes. This is usually in the form of wat, a thick stew, served on top of injera, a large sourdough flatbread, which is about 50 centimeters in diameter and made out of fermented teff flour. Ethiopians usually eat with their right hands, using pieces of injera to pick up bites of entrées and side dishes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutmeg</span> Spice from Myristica fragrans

Nutmeg is the seed, or the ground spice derived from that seed, of several tree species of the genus Myristica; fragrant nutmeg or true nutmeg is a dark-leaved evergreen tree cultivated for two spices derived from its fruit: nutmeg, from its seed, and mace, from the seed covering. It is also a commercial source of nutmeg essential oil and nutmeg butter. Indonesia is the main producer of nutmeg and mace, and the true nutmeg tree is native to its islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seasoning</span> Process of supplementing food via herbs, salts, or spices

Seasoning is the process of supplementing food via herbs, spices, and/or salts, intended to enhance a particular flavour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clove</span> Spice, flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum

Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands, or Moluccas, in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice, flavoring, or fragrance in consumer products, such as toothpaste, soaps, or cosmetics. Cloves are available throughout the year owing to different harvest seasons across various countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black pepper</span> Ground fruit of the family Piperaceae

Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about 5 mm (0.20 in) in diameter, dark red, and contains a stone which encloses a single pepper seed. Peppercorns and the ground pepper derived from them may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper, green pepper, or white pepper.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mulled wine</span> Heated red wine with spices

Mulled wine, also known as spiced wine, is an alcoholic drink usually made with red wine, along with various mulling spices and sometimes raisins, served hot or warm. It is a traditional drink during winter, especially around Christmas. It is usually served at Christmas markets in Europe, primarily in Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Nordics, Baltics and eastern France. There are non-alcoholic versions of it. Vodka-spiked mulled wine can be found in Polish Christmas markets, where mulled wine is commonly used as a mixer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allspice</span> Pungent fruit of the tree Pimenta dioica

Allspice, also known as Jamaica pepper, myrtle pepper, pimenta, or pimento, is the dried unripe berry of Pimenta dioica, a midcanopy tree native to the Greater Antilles, southern Mexico, and Central America, now cultivated in many warm parts of the world. The name allspice was coined as early as 1621 by the English, who valued it as a spice that combined the flavours of cinnamon, nutmeg, and clove. Contrary to common knowledge, it is not a mixture of spices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Garam masala</span> South Asian spice mix

Garam masala is a blend of ground spices originating from South Asia. It is common in Indian, Pakistani, Nepalese, Bangladeshi, Sri Lankan and Caribbean cuisines. It is used alone or with other seasonings. The specific fixings differ by district, but it regularly incorporates a blend of flavors like cardamom, cinnamon, cumin, cloves and peppercorns. Garam masala can be found in a wide range of dishes, including marinades, pickles, stews, and curries.

Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spice trade</span> Historic international commerce

The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices, such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove, and turmeric, were known and used in antiquity and traded in the Eastern World. These spices found their way into the Near East before the beginning of the Christian era, with fantastic tales hiding their true sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spice mix</span> Blend of spices or herbs

Spice mixes are blended spices or herbs. When a certain combination of herbs or spices is called for in a recipe, it is convenient to blend these ingredients beforehand. Blends such as chili powder, curry powder, herbes de Provence, garlic salt, and other seasoned salts are traditionally sold pre-made by grocers, and sometimes baking blends such as pumpkin pie spice are also available. These spice mixes are also easily made by the home cook for later use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chettinad cuisine</span>

Chettinadu cuisine (Setti Nadu in tamil) is the cuisine of a community called the Nattukotai Chettiars, or Nagarathars, from the Chettinad region in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu state in India. Chettinad cuisine is perhaps the most renowned fare in the Tamil Nadu repertoire. It uses a variety of spices and the dishes are made with fresh ground masalas. Chettiars also use a variety of sun-dried meats and salted vegetables, reflecting the dry environment of the region. Most of the dishes are eaten with rice and rice based accompaniments such as dosas, appams, idiyappams, adais and idlis. The Chettiars, through their mercantile contacts with Burma, learnt to prepare a type of rice pudding made with sticky red rice. The chefs of manapatti village near Singampunari are experts in cooking Chettinad cuisine. They always used to cook in bulk orders for marriage functions, political functions, etc. though manapatti cooking is portrayed as madurai cuisine because it is located near to madurai district, it comes under chettinad cuisine only and it also comes under the chettinad region of sivagangai district. The entire village people is famous in the art of cooking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Massaman curry</span> Mild Thai curry

Massaman curry is a rich, flavourful, and mildly spicy Thai curry. It is a fusion dish, combining ingredients from three sources: Persia, the Indian Subcontinent, and the Malay Archipelago with ingredients more commonly used in native Thai cuisine to make massaman curry paste. The substance of the dish is usually based on chicken or other meat, potatoes, onions, and peanuts. The richness comes from the coconut milk and cream used as a base, as for many Thai curries.

Qâlat daqqa, or Tunisian Five Spices, is a spice blend originating from Tunisia. It is made of cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, peppercorns, and grains of paradise mixed and ground, depending on its use, between a coarse grind and a fine powder. This spice blend is used to as both an aromatic and seasoning for meats and vegetable dishes. The flavor of the mixture is described as being "sweet and warm".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mizrahi Jewish cuisine</span> Assortment of cooking traditions of Mizrahi Jews

Mizrahi Jewish cuisine is an assortment of cooking traditions that developed among the Mizrahi Jewish communities of the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia. Influenced by the diverse local culinary practices of countries such as Morocco, Libya, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Yemen, and Syria, Mizrahi cuisine prominently features rice, legumes, meats, and an array of spices such as cumin, turmeric, and coriander. Signature dishes include kubbeh (dumplings), pilafs, grilled meats, and stews like hamin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Curry paste</span>

Curry paste is a mixture of ingredients in the consistency of a paste used in the preparation of a curry. There are different varieties of curry paste depending from the region and also within the same cuisine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grains of Selim</span> Spice similar to black pepper

Grains of Selim are the seeds of a shrubby tree, Xylopia aethiopica, found in Africa. The seeds have a musky flavor and are used as a spice in a manner similar to black pepper, and as a flavouring agent that defines café Touba, the dominant style of coffee in Senegal. It is also known as Senegal pepper, Ethiopian pepper, and (historically) Moor pepper and Negro pepper. It also has many names in native languages of Africa, the most common of which is diarr in the Wolof language. It is called 'Etso' in the Ewe language of Ghana and Togo. It is sometimes referred to as African pepper or Guinea pepper, but these are ambiguous terms that may refer to Ashanti pepper and grains of paradise, among others.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to herbs and spices:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bumbu (seasoning)</span> Indonesian spice blends

Bumbu is the Indonesian word for a blend of spices and for pastes and it commonly appears in the names of spice mixtures, sauces and seasoning pastes. The official Indonesian language dictionary describes bumbu as "various types of herbs and plants that have a pleasant aroma and flavour — such as ginger, turmeric, galangal, nutmeg and pepper — used to enhance the flavour of the food."

References

  1. ↑ "Spice and herb | Types, Uses, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. March 8, 2024. Retrieved April 9, 2024.
  2. ↑ Ahmad, Hafsa; Khera, Rasheed Ahmad; Hanif, Muhammad Asif; Ayub, Muhammad Adnan; Jilani, Muhammad Idrees (2020). "Vanilla". Medicinal Plants of South Asia. pp. 657–669. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00048-3. ISBN   978-0-08-102659-5. S2CID   241855294.
  3. ↑ Vázquez-Fresno, Rosa; Rosana, Albert Remus R.; Sajed, Tanvir; et al. (May 22, 2019). "Herbs and Spices - Biomarkers of Intake Based on Human Intervention Studies – A Systematic Review". Genes and Nutrition. 14 (18): 18. doi: 10.1186/s12263-019-0636-8 . PMC   6532192 . PMID   31143299.
  4. ↑ "Spices Board". www.indianspices.com. Retrieved July 20, 2024.
  5. 1 2 3 4 "Definition of SPICE". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on August 12, 2022. Retrieved August 12, 2022.
  6. 1 2 3 "spice - Middle English Compendium". quod.lib.umich.edu. Archived from the original on August 12, 2022. Retrieved August 12, 2022.
  7. ↑ Steven E. Sidebotham (May 7, 2019). Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route. Univ of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-30338-6. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved April 13, 2019.
  8. ↑ Daniel T. Potts (1997), Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. Archived March 26, 2023, at the Wayback Machine A&C Black publishers, p. 269
  9. ↑ Buccellati, G., M. Kelly-Buccellati, Terqa: The First Eight Seasons, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes 33(2), 1983, 47-67
  10. ↑ O'Connell, John (2016). The Book of Spice: From Anise to Zedoary. Pegasus Books. ISBN   978-1-68177-152-6.
  11. ↑ Woodward, Penny (2003). "Herbs and Spices". In Katz (ed.). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. Vol. 2. Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 187–195.
  12. 1 2 Murdock, Linda (2001). A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals. Bellwether Books. p. 14. ISBN   978-0-9704285-0-9.
  13. ↑ Burkill, I.H. (1966). A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-Operatives.
  14. ↑ Duke, J.A. (2002). CRC Handbook of Medicinal Spices. CRC Press. p. 7. ISBN   978-1-4200-4048-7. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
  15. ↑ Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (1992). Tastes of paradise : a social history of spices, stimulants, and intoxicants. Pantheon Books. ISBN   0-394-57984-4. OCLC   24702170. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved December 4, 2022.
  16. 1 2 Freedman, Paul (June 5, 2015). "Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Potent Substances: On the Boundaries of Food and Medicine. 167: 47–53. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065. PMID   25450779.
  17. ↑ Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004). Food in Medieval Times . Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p.  65. ISBN   978-0-313-32147-4.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Paul Freedman, Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination, 2008, ISBN   9780300151350, p. 2-3
  19. ↑ Turner, 2004, p. 11
  20. ↑ Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, p. 453, Gil Marks, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. ISBN   978-0-470-39130-3
  21. ↑ "Mariners Weather Log Vol. 52, No. 3, December 2008". www.vos.noaa.gov. Retrieved October 7, 2024.
  22. ↑ Dennett, Carrie (January 26, 2017). "How a full spice cabinet can keep you healthy". The Washington Post . Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved August 12, 2022.
  23. ↑ Thomas, Frédéric; Daoust, Simon P.; Raymond, Michel (June 2012). "Can we understand modern humans without considering pathogens?: Human evolution and parasites". Evolutionary Applications. 5 (4): 368–379. doi:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00231.x. PMC   3353360 . PMID   25568057.
  24. ↑ Paul Freedman, "Food Histories of the Middle Ages", in Kyri W. Claflin, Peter Scholliers, Writing Food History: A Global Perspective, ISBN   1847888097, p. 24
  25. ↑ Andrew Dalby, Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices, 2000, ISBN   0520236742, p. 156
  26. ↑ Andrew Jotischky, A Hermit's Cookbook: Monks, Food and Fasting in the Middle Ages, 2011, ISBN   1441159916, p. 170
  27. 1 2 3 Michael Krondl, The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice, 2007, ISBN   9780345480835, p. 6
  28. ↑ Shelef, L.A. (1984). "Antimicrobial Effects of Spices". Journal of Food Safety. 6 (1): 29–44. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4565.1984.tb00477.x.
  29. 1 2 Host: Alton Brown (January 14, 2004). "Spice Capades". Good Eats. Season 7. Episode 14. Food Network.
  30. ↑ Van Dorena, Jane M.; Daria Kleinmeiera; Thomas S. Hammack; Ann Westerman (June 2013). "Prevalence, serotype diversity, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella in imported shipments of spice offered for entry to the United States, FY2007–FY2009". Food Microbiology. 34 (2): 239–251. doi:10.1016/j.fm.2012.10.002. PMID   23541190. Archived from the original on June 16, 2019. Retrieved June 16, 2019. Shipments of imported spices offered for entry to the United States were sampled during the fiscal years 2007–2009. The mean shipment prevalence for Salmonella was 0.066 (95% CI 0.057–0.076)
  31. ↑ Gardiner Harris (August 27, 2013). "Salmonella in Spices Prompts Changes in Farming". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 29, 2013. Retrieved August 28, 2013.
  32. ↑ Calucci, L.; Pinzino, C.; Zandomeneghi, M.; Capocchi, A.; Ghiringhelli, S.; Saviozzi, F.; Tozzi, S.; Galleschi, L. (2003). "Effects of gamma-irradiation on the free radical and antioxidant contents in nine aromatic herbs and spices". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51 (4): 927–34. doi:10.1021/jf020739n. PMID   12568551.
  33. ↑ "Myths about Food Irradiation". Center for Consumer Research. June 28, 2017. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022.
  34. ↑ "Production of Spice by countries". UN Food & Agriculture Organization. 2011. Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
  35. ↑ "67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives". International Organization for Standardization . 2009. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2009.

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