Jain vegetarianism is practised by the followers of Jain culture and philosophy. It is one of the most rigorous forms of spiritually motivated diet on the Indian subcontinent and beyond. The Jain cuisine is completely lacto-vegetarian and excludes root and underground vegetables such as potato, garlic, onion etc., to prevent injuring small insects and microorganisms. The diet also helps prevent the entire plant from being uprooted and killed. It is practiced by Jain ascetics and lay Jains.[1]
The objections to the eating of meat, fish and eggs are based on the principle of non-violence (ahimsa, figuratively "non-injuring"). Every act by which a person directly or indirectly supports killing or injury is seen as act of violence (himsa), which creates harmful reaction karma. The aim of ahimsa is to prevent the accumulation of such karma.[2][3] The extent to which this intention is put into effect varies greatly among Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. Jains believe nonviolence is the most essential religious duty for everyone (ahinsā paramo dharmaḥ, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples).[4][5][6] It is an indispensable condition for liberation from the cycle of reincarnation,[7] which is the ultimate goal of all Jain activities. Jains share this goal with Hindus and Buddhists, but their approach is particularly rigorous and comprehensive. Their scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities, and especially to food, shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity.[8][9][10][11] A side effect of this strict discipline is the exercise of asceticism, which is strongly encouraged in Jainism for lay people as well as for monks and nuns.[12][13][14] Out of the five types of living beings, a householder is forbidden to kill, or destroy, intentionally, all except the lowest (the one sensed, such as vegetables, herbs, cereals, etc., which are endowed with only the sense of touch).[15]
Practice
For Jains, vegetarianism is mandatory. In 2021 it was found that 92% of self-identified Jains in India adhered to some type of vegetarian diet and another 5% seem to try to follow a mostly vegetarian diet by abstaining from eating certain kinds of meat and/or abstaining from eating meat on specific days.[16] In the Jain context, Vegetarianism historically stems from the objective of minimizing violence to all beings. As a logical interpretation of this, many Jains are adopting veganism because of the immense suffering of dairy animals, their forceful impregnation, and eventual slaughter in most cases. Food is restricted to that originating from plants, since plants have only one sense ('ekindriya') and are the least developed form of life, and dairy products, though voices[who?] have started pointing out the inherent violence in dairy. Food that contains even the smallest particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is unacceptable.[17][18] Some Jain scholars and activists support veganism, as they believe the modern commercialised production of dairy products involves violence against farm animals.[19][20][21] According to Jain texts, a śrāvaka (householder) should not consume the four maha-vigai (the four perversions) – wine, flesh, butter and honey; and the five udumbara fruits (the five udumbara trees are Gular, Anjeera, Banyan, Peepal, and Pakar, all belonging to the fig genus). Lastly, Jains should not consume any foods or drinks that have animal products or animal flesh. A common misconception is that Jains cannot eat animal-shaped foods or products. As long as the foods do not contain animal products or animal flesh, animal shaped foods can be consumed without the fear of committing a sin.[22][23]
Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other tiny animals,[24][25][26][27] because they believe that harm caused by carelessness is as reprehensible as harm caused by deliberate action.[28][29][30][31][32] Hence they take great pains to make sure that no minuscule animals are injured by the preparation of their meals and in the process of eating and drinking.[33][34]
Traditionally Jains have been prohibited from drinking unfiltered water. In the past, when stepwells were used for the water source, the cloth used for filtering was reversed, and some filtered water poured over it to return the organisms to the original body of water. This practice of jivani or bilchavani is no longer possible because of the use of pipes for water supply. Modern Jains may also filter tap water in the traditional fashion and a few continue to follow the filtering process even with commercial mineral or bottled drinking water.
Jains make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Jains accept such violence only in as much as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.[35][36][37] Strict Jains do not eat root vegetables, such as potatoes, onions, roots and tubers, as they are considered ananthkay.[23] Ananthkay means one body, but containing infinite lives. A root vegetable, such as potato, though appearing to be a single object, is said to contain infinite lives. Also, tiny life forms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because the bulb is seen as a living being, as it is able to sprout.[38][39][40] Also, consumption of most root vegetables involves uprooting and killing the entire plant, whereas consumption of most terrestrial vegetables does not kill the plant (it lives on after plucking the vegetables or it was seasonally supposed to wither away anyway). Among Indian Jains, 67% report that they abstain from eating root vegetables.[16] Green vegetables and fruits contain uncountable lives. Dry beans, lentils, cereals, nuts and seeds contain a countable number of lives and their consumption results in the least destruction of life.
Mushrooms, fungi and yeasts are forbidden because they grow in unhygienic environments and may harbour other life forms.[41]
Honey is forbidden, as its collection would amount to violence against the bees.[34][42][43]
Jain texts declare that a śrāvaka should not cook or eat at night. According to Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya:
And, how can one who eats food without the light of the sun, albeit a lamp may have been lighted, avoid hiṃsā of minute beings which get into food?
Strict Jains do not consume food that has been stored overnight, as it possesses a higher concentration of micro-organisms (for example, bacteria, yeast etc.) as compared to food prepared and consumed the same day. Hence, they do not consume yoghurt or dhokla and idli batter unless they have been freshly set on the same day.
During certain days of the month and on important religious days such as Paryushana and 'Ayambil', strict Jains avoid eating green leafy vegetables along with the usual restrictions on root vegetables.
Jains do not consume fermented foods (beer, wine and other alcohols) to avoid killing of a large number of microorganisms associated with the fermenting process.
Jains can however consume vanilla extract, as the very minuscule amount of alcohol in extract gets baked off completely in the cooking process. In addition, certain juices (apple juice, orange juice), breads/flours (via Amyloglucosidase and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and portions of certain fruits as they ripen (bananas as they yellow, cherries, and pears) will contain a very minuscule amount of alcohol via the fructose, sucrose, and glucose sugars, similar to vanilla extract (and can be consumed by strict Jains) [reference, jaina.org]. [45]
According to Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya:
Wine deludes the mind and a deluded person tends to forget piety; the person who forgets piety commits hiṃsā without hesitation.
Along with practicing total abstinence from consuming certain types of food and limiting foods that harbor the lives of many microorganisms, fasting is also an important component of Jain dietary practices, Jain identity and Jain culture. However, Jain fasting exists in many forms and both ability and social status can limit the practice of fasting to some extent. In India 84% of Jains report partaking in some form of fasting.[16]
Influence on vegetarian cuisines in India
The vegetarian cuisines of some regions of the Indian subcontinent have been strongly influenced by Jainism. These include
Tamil Jains cuisine of Northern Districts of Tamil Nadu.
In India, vegetarian food is considered appropriate for everyone for all occasions. This makes vegetarian restaurants quite popular. Many vegetarian restaurants and Mishtanna sweet-shops – for example, the Ghantewala sweets of Delhi[48] and Jamna Mithya in Sagar – are run by Jains.
Some restaurants in India serve Jain versions of vegetarian dishes that leave out carrots, potatoes, onions and garlic. A few airlines serve Jain vegetarian dishes[49][50] upon prior request.
According to survey responses of Indian Jains who identified themselves as vegetarians, 92% would be unwilling to eat at a restaurant that isn't exclusively vegetarian and 89% would be unwilling to eat at the home of a friend/acquaintance who isn't a vegetarian as well.[16]
Historical background
When Mahavira revived and reorganized the Jain community in the 6th century BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule.[51][52]Parshvanatha, a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure,[53][54] lived in about the 8th century BCE[55][56] and founded a community to which Mahavira's parents belonged.[57][58] Parshvanatha's followers vowed to observe ahimsa; this obligation was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint).[59][60][61][54]
In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains criticized Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus for negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa. In particular, they strongly objected to the Vedic tradition of animal sacrifice with subsequent meat-eating, and to hunting.[4][62][63][64][65][66]
According to the famous Tamilclassic, Tirukkuṛaḷ, which is also considered a Jain work by some scholars:
If the world did not purchase and consume meat, no one would slaughter and offer meat for sale. (Kural 256)[67]
Some Brahmins—Kashmiri Pandits and Bengali Brahmins—have traditionally eaten meat (primarily seafood). However, in regions with strong Jain influence such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, or strong Jain influence in the past such as Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Brahmins are strict vegetarians. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of ahimsa. He wrote in a letter:
In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta. But the credit for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the Brahminical religion goes to Jainism.[68]
Ahimsa is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism.
Buddhist cuisine is an Asian cuisine that is followed by monks and many believers from areas historically influenced by Mahayana Buddhism. It is vegetarian or vegan, and it is based on the Dharmic concept of ahimsa (non-violence). Vegetarianism is common in other Dharmic faiths such as Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, as well as East Asian religions like Taoism. While monks, nuns and a minority of believers are vegetarian year-round, many believers follow the Buddhist vegetarian diet for celebrations.
Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat. It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter. A person who practices vegetarianism is known as a vegetarian.
Vegetarian cuisine is based on food that meets vegetarian standards by not including meat and animal tissue products.
Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it may refer to a general philosophy of abstention from violence. It may be based on moral, religious or spiritual principles, or the reasons for it may be strategic or pragmatic. Failure to distinguish between the two types of nonviolent approaches can lead to distortion in the concept's meaning and effectiveness, which can subsequently result in confusion among the audience. Although both principled and pragmatic nonviolent approaches preach for nonviolence, they may have distinct motives, goals, philosophies, and techniques. However, rather than debating the best practice between the two approaches, both can indicate alternative paths for those who do not want to use violence.
There are varying beliefs about cattle in societies and religions.
A lacto-vegetarian diet is a diet that abstains from the consumption of meat as well as eggs, while still consuming dairy products such as milk, cheese, yogurt, butter, ghee, cream, and kefir.
A flexitarian diet, also called a semi-vegetarian diet, is one that is centered on plant foods with limited or occasional inclusion of meat. For example, a flexitarian might eat meat only some days each week. Flexitarian is a portmanteau of the words flexible and vegetarian, signifying its followers' less strict diet pattern when compared to vegetarian pattern diets.
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Christian vegetarianism is the practice of keeping to a vegetarian lifestyle for reasons connected to or derived from the Christian faith. The three primary reasons are spiritual, nutritional, and ethical. The ethical reasons may include a concern for God's creation, a concern for animal rights and welfare, or both. Likewise, Christian veganism is not using any animal products for reasons connected to or derived from the Christian faith. Pescatarianism was widespread in the early Church, among both the clergy and laity. Among the early Judeo-Christian Gnostics the Ebionites held that John the Baptist, James the Just and Jesus were vegetarians.
Islam and Jainism interacted with each other in the Indian subcontinent following the frequent Islamic incursions, and later the Islamic conquest and rule of the subcontinent from twelfth century AD onwards, when much of northwest, north and central India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Moghuls of Turko-Mongol origin.
The practice of vegetarianism is strongly linked with a number of religious traditions worldwide. These include religions that originated in India, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. With close to 85% of India's billion-plus population practicing these religions, India remains the country with the highest number of vegetarians in the world.
Buddhist vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism by significant portions of Mahayana Buddhist monastics and laypersons as well as some Buddhists of other sects. In Buddhism, the views on vegetarianism vary between different schools of thought. The Mahayana schools generally recommend a vegetarian diet, claiming that Gautama Buddha set forth in some of the sutras that his followers must not eat the flesh of any sentient being.
Vegetarian and vegan dietary practices vary among countries. Differences include food standards, laws, and general cultural attitudes toward vegetarian diets.
The earliest records of vegetarianism as a concept and practice amongst a significant number of people are from ancient India, especially among the Hindus and Jains. Later records indicate that small groups within the ancient Greek civilizations in southern Italy and Greece also adopted some dietary habits similar to vegetarianism. In both instances, the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence toward animals, and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.
In Jainism, ahiṃsā is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term ahiṃsā means nonviolence, non-injury, and absence of desire to harm any life forms. Veganism, vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa. There are five specific transgressions of Ahimsa principle in Jain scriptures – binding of animals, beating, mutilating limbs, overloading, withholding food and drink. Any other interpretation is subject to individual choices and not authorized by scriptures.
Diet in Hinduism signifies the diverse traditions found across the Indian subcontinent. Hindu scriptures promote a vegetarian dietary ideal based on the concept of ahimsa—non-violence and compassion towards all beings. According to a Pew Research Center survey, 44% of Hindus say they are vegetarian.
Non-vegetarian food contains meat, and sometimes, eggs. The term is common in India, but not usual elsewhere. In the generally vegetarian environment of India, restaurants offering meat and fish usually have a "non-vegetarian" section of their menu, and may include the term in their name-boards and advertising. When describing people, non-vegetarians eat meat and/or eggs, as opposed to vegetarians. But in India, consumption of dairy foods is usual for both groups.
Vegetarian ecofeminism is an activist and academic movement which states that all types of oppression are linked and must be eradicated, with a focus on including the domination of humans over nonhuman animals. Through the feminist concept known as intersectionality, it is recognized that sexism, racism, classism, and other forms of inter human discrimination are all connected. Vegetarian ecofeminism aims to include the domination of not only the environment but also of nonhuman animals to the list. Vegetarian ecofeminism is part of the academic and philosophical field of ecofeminism, which states that the ways in which the privileged dominates the oppressed should include the way humans dominate nature. A major theme within ecofeminism is the belief that there is a strong connection between the domination of women and the domination of nature, and that both must be eradicated in order to end oppression.
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↑ Jain, Prof. Pushpendra K. (2000). "Dietary code of practice amongst Jains". International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 6 October 2023. Mushrooms and fungus are not used by Jain families because they are said to grow under unhygienic conditions and are parasites.
Granoff, Phyllis (1992), "The Violence of Non-Violence: A Study of Some Jain Responses to Non-Jain Religious Practices", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 15
Jain, Jagdishchandra (1984), Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canon and Commentaries (2nded.), New Delhi{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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