The Jain community, or Jains, are the followers of Jainism, an ancient Indian religion. While constituting a small minority in India (approximately 0.4% of the population), the community is notable as one of the most literate and wealthy groups in the country. Scholars have extensively studied the community's distinct socio-economic profile, linking it to the rigorous application of core ethical principles, particularly Ahimsa (non-violence) and Aparigraha (non-attachment), in daily life.
The Jain community, known as the sangha, is traditionally described as a "four-fold order" (chaturvidha sangha), consisting of muni (male monastics), aryika (female monastics), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The lay community, through an ethical framework known as the "small vows" (anuvratas), has historically engaged in professions like trade, banking, and finance, while also maintaining a strong, documented tradition of philanthropy and artistic patronage.
The Jain community, or Sangha, is traditionally described as a "four-fold order" (chaturvidha sangha).[citation needed] This structure consists of two main branches:
The Renunciant Order: Comprising the muni (male monastics) and aryika (female monastics).[1]
The Lay Order (or Householders): Comprising the Śrāvaka (laymen) and śrāvikā (laywomen).[citation needed]
The relationship between these two branches is symbiotic and central to Jain society.[2] The monastic community renounces all worldly possessions and focuses on asceticism and spiritual purification.[1] In return, the lay community provides the monastics with material support (such as food, water, and shelter), for which they receive spiritual guidance and merit (puṇya).[2]
The two orders follow the same five core vows, but at different levels of severity.[3] Monastics adhere to the Five Great Vows (Mahavratas), which require complete renunciation, including absolute celibacy and non-possession.[4] The laity follows the Five "Small Vows" (Anuvratas), which are a less-strict application of the same principles, designed to be compatible with a householder's life.[5] This path allows the laity to practice core Jain ethics—such as non-violence (Ahimsa) and non-attachment (Aparigraha)—while remaining engaged in society, family, and professional life.[6]
Major Sects and Common Lay Ethics
Jain identity is not based on a single criterion but on an overlapping set of religious and social affiliations.[citation needed]
Primary Sectarian Divisions (Sampradāyas)
The most profound schism in Jainism occurred historically over differences in monastic discipline, scripture, and doctrine.[citation needed] This led to two main traditions that function as distinct communities.[citation needed]
Digambara: Meaning "sky-clad," the Digambara tradition holds that male monks (munis) must renounce all possessions, including clothing, to achieve liberation.[citation needed] They believe the original Agamas (scriptures) were lost and do not accept the Svetambara canon.[citation needed]Digambara theology also maintains that women must be reborn as men to attain moksha (liberation).[citation needed] This tradition is most prevalent in Southern and Central India.[citation needed]
Svetambara: Meaning "white-clad," the Svetambara tradition permits monks and nuns (sadhvis) to wear simple, white robes.[citation needed] They preserve a large body of canonical scriptures, the Agamas, which they believe to be the teachings of Mahavira.[citation needed]Svetambaras also believe that women are capable of achieving moksha in their current birth and have a large, active order of nuns.[citation needed] This tradition is dominant in Western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan).[citation needed]
Major Sub-Sects and Monastic Traditions
Over centuries, both major sects experienced reforms and further divisions, leading to the sub-sect communities that most Jains identify with today.[citation needed]
Svetambara Sub-Sects
Murtipujak (or Deravasi): The largest Svetambara group.[citation needed] Their name, "idol-worshipper," signifies their central religious practice of devotional worship (puja) to idols of tirthankaras in ornate temples (derasars or mandirs).[citation needed]
Sthanakvasi: This reformist sect emerged in the 17th century from the Lonka Shah reforms.[citation needed] They reject idol worship and temples, instead performing their religious duties in simple prayer halls called sthanaks.[citation needed] They emphasize meditation and the study of the Agamas.[citation needed]
Terapanthi: A reformist sect that split from the Sthanakvasi tradition in the 18th century under the leadership of Acharya Bhikshu.[citation needed] The Terapanth is a highly organized community with a single living Acharya as its supreme head, emphasizing discipline, simplicity, and non-idol worship.[citation needed]
Digambara Sub-Sects
Bispanthi: This group follows the traditional Digambara practices, including the worship of tirthankara idols and the presence of Bhattarakas (monastic patriarchs who sometimes sit on thrones).[citation needed] Their pujas are often elaborate, involving flowers, fruits, and saffron.[citation needed]
Terapanthi: This reformist sect emerged in the 17th century to oppose the authority of the Bhattarakas and the perceived ritual excesses of the Bispanthis.[citation needed] Their worship is simpler and more austere.[citation needed]
Taranpanthi (or Samaiyapanthi): A 15th-century reformist sect that rejects idol worship entirely, focusing instead on the study of sacred texts written by its founder, Taran Svami.[citation needed]
Demographics and Socio-Economic Profile
While Jains constitute a small minority of India's population (approximately 0.37% per the 2011 census of India), the community is noted for its high literacy rate, wealth, and significant philanthropic impact.[citation needed] Scholars have extensively studied the community's distinct socio-economic profile, linking it to the rigorous application of core Jain ethical principles in daily life.[citation needed]
The Jain community has the highest literacy rate of any religious community in India.[citation needed] The 2011 census recorded a Jain literacy rate of 94.9%, far exceeding the national average of 74.04%.[citation needed] This high literacy extends to women, with the female literacy rate among Jains being 92.1%, compared to a national female average of 65.46%.[7][8] Jains are also the wealthiest community in India.[citation needed] Data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) in 2018 revealed that 70% of Jains were in the highest wealth quintile of the country.[9]
Ethical Foundations of Economic Activity
Scholars have noted that Jain ethics, particularly the principle of Ahimsa (non-violence), had a direct influence on the community's economic development.[10] The strict interpretation of Ahimsa, which forbids harming any living being, ethically prohibited Jains from professions like farming (due to the harm to insects and soil microbes) and military roles.[citation needed]
This ethical restriction historically funneled the Jain laity into professions that were considered "harmless," such as trade, banking, money-lending, and gemology (especially the diamond trade).[citation needed] The community's emphasis on Satya (truth) and Asteya (non-stealing) also helped build a reputation of high trust, which was essential for the success of these mercantile and financial endeavors.[11]
Aparigraha: A Shared Tradition of Philanthropy and Patronage
The Jain community's approach to wealth is shaped by the principle of Aparigraha (non-attachment), one of the five main vows.[citation needed] This ethic encourages limiting one's possessions and viewing accumulated wealth not as a personal end, but as a resource to be used for the welfare of all living beings (jīva-dayā).[citation needed]
This principle, combined with the tradition of Dāna (charity), has resulted in a long and well-documented history of philanthropy.[10] The community is known for funding and managing public institutions, including schools, hospitals, and, most notably, panjrapoles—extensive animal sanctuaries that care for sick, injured, and aged animals, reflecting the ethic of Ahimsa.[12]
This tradition also extended to the patronage of art and architecture.[citation needed] Unlike many of India's great monuments commissioned by kings or emperors, some of the most intricate Jain temples were funded by wealthy lay merchants and ministers.[citation needed]
The most famous examples are the Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu, commissioned by the minister Vimal Shah, and the Ranakpur Jain Temple, funded by a local merchant.[citation needed] This practice of translating personal wealth into timeless public art and spiritual merit is a hallmark of the community's socio-economic legacy.[citation needed]
Regional and Caste Communities
Jains are found in almost every part of India. There are about 100 different Jain communities in India. They can be divided into five groups based on historical and current residence:
Jainism in East Africa - One of the oldest Jain overseas diaspora. Their number was estimated at 45,000 at the independence of the East African countries in the early 1960s.[15] Most members of the diaspora belonged to Gujarati speaking Halari Visa Oshwal Jain community originally from the Jamnagar area of Saurashtra.[15][16]
The Jain population in India according to 2011 census is 0.54% i.e. 4,451,753 (Males 2,278,097; Females 2,173,656) out of the total population of India 1,210,854,977 (males 623,270,258; females 587,584,719).[17] The tabular representation of Jain population in the major states of India as per 2011 Census data released by the government is:
↑ Mehta, Makrand (2001). "Gujarati Business Communities in East African Diaspora: Major Historical Trends". Economic and Political Weekly. 36 (20): 1738–1747. JSTOR4410637.
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