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Archaeological evidence shows Jainism was a significant religion in Bengal region during the early historic period. [1]
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Archaeological evidence shows Jainism was a significant religion in Bengal region during the early historic period. [1]
Jain ideology in ancient Bengal developed in two main phases: an early period (pre-Mauryan to 7th–8th century CE) and a later phase (post-Gupta to 13th century CE) marked by the emergence of local rulers. Early references to Jainism in Bengal include the 4th-century BCE Hatigumpha inscription, where King Khāravela of Kalinga, a Jain devotee, retrieved a Jina image taken by a Nanda ruler of Gangaridai, indicating possible Jain influence in the region.
Buddhist texts like the Divyavadana suggest Jainism’s presence in Pundravardhana (modern Mahasthangarh, Bangladesh) by the time of Ashoka. Additionally, the Bṛhatkathākośa recounts that Jain preceptor Bhadrabahu, associated with Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, was born in North Bengal, implying Jainism’s roots in the area. The Kalpa Sutra mentions Bhadrabahu’s disciple, Godasa, who established branches in Tāmralipta, Koṭivarṣa, and Puṇḍravardhana—regions that served as early Jain centers in Bengal.
Archaeological finds such as a Jain terracotta plaque from Murshidabad (Maurya-Sunga period) and an inscription from Mathura (150 CE) referencing a Jain monk from Rāḍha suggest a well-established Jain presence by the 1st century CE. Discoveries like the terracotta figure of Naigamesha in Burdwan further indicate Jainism’s integration into local folk practices during the Kuṣāṇa period.
By the early medieval era, Jainism likely persisted in areas like Kumariparvata, supported by regional monastic movements, particularly from the Tāmraliptikā branch. [2]
The next substantial evidence for the spread of Jainism in ancient Bengal is a copper-plate grant dated Gupta Era year 159 (479 CE), found at Paharpur in Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Known primarily for its Pāla Buddhist monastery, this inscription marks the earliest archaeological Jain record in Bengal during the Gupta period (Dikshit, 1983). It documents an endowment by a Brahmin couple, Nāthaśarman and his wife Rāmī, who donated lands for the worship of Arhats at the Vaṭa-Gōhālī vihāra, overseen by disciples of the Nirgrantha Śramaṇācārya Guhanadin from the pañchastūpa section of Kāśi.
The Vaṭa-Gōhālī vihāra likely corresponds to the present-day site of Paharpur. Despite limited Jain artifacts, the donation by a Brahmin couple for Jain worship illustrates notable religious tolerance in the region. The inscription implies Guhanadin’s discipleship lineage and indicates his activity around the late 4th century CE, placing the foundation of the vihāra about 50 years prior.
The term pañchastūpa (five-stupa) sect is referenced in Digambara literature; eminent monks such as Virasena and Jinasena were part of this sect. Harishena's Bṛhatkathākośa records the establishment of five stūpas at Mathura, suggesting an early Digambara presence that possibly spread to Bengal. Other records from the period, such as the Jagadishpur copper plate (448 CE), further illustrate Jain influence.
The Jagadishpur plate, acquired by the Varendra Research Museum in 1961, confirms land grants for the Mecikāmra siddhāyatana in Puṇḍravardhana and affiliated Jain religious structures. This siddhāyatana, potentially a Jain establishment, suggests North Bengal's Jain presence during the Gupta period, with donations from agrarian families. Together with records from Nāthaśarman and Rāmī’s donation, these findings underscore Jainism’s significant reach and support among diverse social classes in Bengal. [3]
Earlier scholars believed (Gupta, 1993-94) that Jainism nearly disappeared from ancient Bengal after the seventh century CE, with Xuanzang’s travel account being the last evidence of its popularity. However, recent discoveries confirm that Jainism persisted and flourished in the Rāḍha region of Bengal up to the twelfth or thirteenth century CE.
Xuanzang’s account, from around 638 CE, indicates that Jainism retained a stronghold in Bengal during the seventh century, describing it as the dominant faith in two prominent regions: Pundravardhana in the north and Samatata in southeastern Bengal.
Regarding Pundravardhana and Samatata, Xuanzang observed:
There were twenty Buddhist Monasteries and above 3000 Brethren by whom the “Great and Little Vehicles” were followed: the Deva Temples were 100 in number, and the followers of the various sects lived pell-mell, the Digambara Nirgranths being very numerous.
For Samatata, Xuanzang noted:
It had more than 30 Buddhist Monasteries… There were 100 Deva Temples, the various sects lived pell-mell, and the Digambara Nirgranthas were very numerous.
Based on Xuanzang’s descriptions, it can be inferred that during the post-Gupta period, Digambara Jain Nirgranths were more numerous than followers of Buddhism and Brahmanical ideologies in both northern and southeastern Bengal. This prominence suggests that Jainism continued to thrive in Bengal, possibly due to sustained support from the Pundravardhanīya and Tāmraliptika Śākhās. [4]
Jainism was gradually overshadowed by the Buddhist influence in the Pāla strongholds of North Bengal, parts of Bihar, and the Samatata region. Without royal patronage and faced with strong Brahmanical and Buddhist religious currents, Jainism struggled to thrive independently. However, it did survive, particularly in the upland areas of Western Bengal, likely due to the support of the trading community.
The Dudhpani inscription, found in Hazaribagh district, Jharkhand, mentions merchants traveling from Ayodhya to Tamralipta and is dated paleographically to about the eighth century CE. Field surveys have also documented inscribed Jain images in Purulia, Bankura, and Burdwan districts. These inscriptions refer to donors and are dated to the ninth/tenth through twelfth/thirteenth centuries CE, suggesting sponsorship by the Jain mercantile community.
Unfortunately, no Pāla or Sena period epigraphic records from northern Bengal have been discovered to detail Jainism’s spread. However, the Bangarh inscription from the reign of Nayapala (c. 1042–58 CE) indirectly refers to Jain monks in the Bangarh region. The inscription praises a Śaiva teacher, Guru Murtisiva, who defeated Jain Digambara ascetics in religious debates:
śaśvat-pīta-digamva(mba)r-ārtha-viraha-bhrāntiṃ tiraskurvvatī kṛṣṇ-ādvaita-kathān-nirasya va(ba) huśo vṛddher abhāvaṃ guṇe
This indicates that Jainism persisted, albeit with diminished influence, in parts of Bengal and that Śaiva teachers competed with them to establish dominance.
Fieldwork reveals that from the eighth or ninth century onward, Jainism reached its peak in the plateau region of ancient Bengal, particularly in Rāḍha (zones I & III). Isolated, resource-rich, and conducive to non-farming activities, this region likely drew Jain communities, whose members were involved in local trade and resource extraction. The area’s archaeological wealth—temple complexes, sculptures, and architectural remains—suggests it was a thriving Jain center up to the thirteenth century CE.
Western Bengal’s plateau region, known for its sparse forest cover and deposits of metals and minerals, may have been attractive to Jains, locally known as Saraks, for its economic potential. Local traditions of ironworking among tribes like the Bhumij and Asura likely supplemented Jain mercantile interests in resource procurement and trade.
Notably, Beglar describes trade routes connecting Tamluk with Patna and other regions, facilitating the movement of Jain merchants. He writes:
There would be a choice of several routes to Patna, the most direct route would be through Bishnupur, Bahulara, Sonatapan, Ekteswar, Chatna, Raghunathpur, Telkuppi, Jharia, Rajauli, and Rajgir. … At every great obstacle, large cities sprang up, as attested by the remains about Ghatal, Bishnupur, Telkuppi, and near Rajauli.
Jain sculptures with inscriptions in localized Gauḍī script have also been found, reflecting local patronage and recording the names of donors, such as “dānapati Śakalamagana” on a Tīrthaṅkara Ṛṣabhanātha image from Bhabanipur in Purulia, and “dānapati Sanadeva” on a Tīrthaṅkara Pārśvanātha image from Tumba. These inscriptions, though often in corrupt Sanskrit, document Jain patronage in the region.
One noteworthy early medieval Jain saint, Somadeva, author of the Yaśastilakacampū, was originally from Bengal and mentions a Jain shrine at Tamralipta in his writings. Further association of Jainism with Bengal appears in the Vasantavilasa by Balachandra Suri (thirteenth century CE), which notes visits to Jain temples in Ladha, Gauda, and other regions.
Jainism, thus, remained a major religious ideology in eastern India from the eighth century CE onwards. This is evident from the archaeological distribution of Jain sites and sculptural remains, especially across modern-day West Bengal. [5]
Saraks are a Jain community in Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand and Bangladesh. They have been followers of Jainism since ancient times; however, they were isolated and sain community in western, northern and southern India.
According to Ramesh Chandra Majumder, the Jain scholar Bhadrabahu, the second Louhacharya and the author of Kalpa Sutra may have come from the Sarak community. [6] The Saraks were agriculturists and moneylenders having landed properties.
They have continued to remain vegetarian even though this practice is uncommon among other communities in the region. Saraks have Parshva as a favored patron and recite the Ṇamōkāra mantra. The 24th Tirthankara Mahavira visited this region according to the Kalpa Sūtra.
The Saraks lost contact with Jains in the rest of India after its conquest by Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji. Contact with the Digambara Bundelkhand Jains was reestablished when the Parwars Manju Chaudhary (1720–1785) was appointed the governor of Cuttack by the Maratha Empire.
In 2009, more than 165 Sarak Jains living in parts of West Bengal, Bihar and Jharkhand visited the ancient Jain pilgrimage center of Shravanabelagola. A special function to welcome the Sarak Jains was organised at Shravanabelagola. [7]
Most of the Bengali Jains now live in the Indian state of West Bengal.
| # | District | Total population | Jain population | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Kolkata | 4,496,694 | 254678 | 4.09% |
| 2 | Haora | 4,850,029 | 9,699 | 0.20% |
| 3 | North 24 Parganas | 10,009,781 | 4,452 | 0.04% |
| 4 | Puruliya | 2,930,115 | 3,052 | 0.10% |
| 5 | Murshidabad | 7,103,807 | 3,037 | 0.04% |
| 6 | 3,596,674 | 2,904 | 0.08% | |
| 7 | Hugli | 5,519,145 | 2,160 | 0.04% |
| 8 | Koch Bihar | 2,819,086 | 1,869 | 0.07% |
| 9 | Darjiling | 1,846,823 | 1,840 | 0.10% |
| 10 | Barddhaman | 7,717,563 | 1,674 | 0.02% |
| 11 | Paschim Medinipur | 5,913,457 | 1,550 | 0.03% |
| 12 | Jalpaiguri | 3,872,846 | 1,461 | 0.04% |
| 13 | Uttar Dinajpur | 3,007,134 | 1,324 | 0.04% |
| 14 | Birbhum | 3,502,404 | 1,152 | 0.03% |
| 15 | South 24 Parganas | 8,161,961 | 972 | 0.01% |
| 16 | Maldah | 3,988,845 | 639 | 0.02% |
| 17 | Purba Medinipur | 5,095,875 | 574 | 0.01% |
| 18 | Dakshin Dinajpur | 1,676,276 | 323 | 0.02% |
| 19 | Nadia | 5,167,600 | 281 | 0.01% |
| West Bengal (Total) | 91,276,115 | 60,141 | 0.07% |
| Census year | % of total population |
|---|---|
| 1951 | 0.08% |
| 1961 | 0.08% |
| 1971 | 0.07% |
| 1981 | 0.07% |
| 1991 | 0.05% |
| 2001 | 0.07% |
| 2011 | 0.06% |
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya Empire, which ruled over a geographically-extensive empire based in Magadha. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Magadha kingdom expanded to become an empire that reached its peak under the reign of his grandson, Ashoka the Great, from 268 BCE to 231 BCE. The nature of the political formation that existed in Chandragupta's time is not certain. The Mauryan empire was a loose-knit one with large autonomous regions within its limits.
Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana, was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early 6th century BCE to a royal Kshatriya Jain family of ancient India. His mother's name was Trishala and his father's name was Siddhartha. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara Ācārāṅga Sūtra, Siddhartha and his family were devotees of Parshvanatha. Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic. Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and a half years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained moksha (liberation) in the 6th century BCE, although the year varies by sect.
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Shikharji, also known as Sammet or Sammed Shikharji, is one of the holiest pilgrimage sites for Jains, in Giridih district, Jharkhand. It is located on Parasnath hill, the highest mountain in the state of Jharkhand. It is the most important Jain Tirtha, for it is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain tirthankaras along with many other monks attained Moksha. It is one of the five principal pilgrimage destinations along with Girnar, Pawapuri, Champapuri, Dilwara, Palitana and Ashtapad Kailash.
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Parshvanatha, or Pārśva and Pārasanātha, was the 23rd of 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism. Parshvanatha is one of the earliest Tirthankara who is acknowledged as a historical figure. The Jain sources place him between the 9th and 8th centuries BCE whereas historians consider that he lived in the 8th and 7th century BCE.
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The Kalabhra dynasty, also called Kaḷabrar, Kaḷappirar, Kallupura or Kalvar, were rulers of all or parts of Tamil region sometime between the 3rd century and 6th century CE, after the ancient dynasties of the early Cholas, the early Pandyas and Chera. Information about the origin and reign of the Kalabhras is uncertain and scarce. It is believed by historians that the Kalabhras belonged to the Vellalar community of warriors who were possibly once the feudatories of the Cholas and the Pallavas. Their proposed roots vary from southeast region of modern Karnataka, Kalappalars of Vellalar community, to Kallar chieftains. This age is generally called "The Augustan age of Tamil Literature", in a 1922 book by the name "Studies in South Indian Jainism" written by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao. The Kalabhra era is sometimes referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended.
Tamralipta or Tamralipti was an ancient port city and capital of Suhma kingdom in ancient India, located on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. The Tamluk town in present-day Purba Medinipur, West Bengal, is generally identified as the site of Tamralipti.
Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara. The last two tirthankara, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira are considered historical figures. According to Jain texts, the 22nd tirthankara Neminatha lived about 84,000 years ago and was the cousin of Krishna.
Jainism is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition. It prescribes ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings to the greatest possible extent. The three main teachings of Jainism are ahimsa, anekantavada (non-absolutism), aparigraha (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha. Monks follow them completely whereas śrāvakas (householders) observe them partially. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism.
Varendra, also known as Barind, was an ancient and historical territory of Northern Bengal, now mostly in Bangladesh and a little portion in the Indian state of West Bengal and Eastern Bihar.
Saraks is a community in Jharkhand, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa. They have been followers of Jainism, such as vegetarianism, since ancient times, however, were isolated and separated from the main body of the Jain community in western, northern, and southern India and have been Jain Bengalis ever since. The governments of India and West Bengal both have classified some of the Saraks under Other Backward Classes since 1994 but many of them have been in the General category from the beginning itself.
Samataṭa was an ancient geopolitical division of Bengal in the eastern Indian subcontinent. The Greco-Roman account of Sounagoura is linked to the kingdom of Samatata. Its territory corresponded to much of present-day eastern Bangladesh and parts of the Rakhine State of Myanmar. The area covers the trans-Meghna part of the Bengal delta. It was a center of Buddhist civilisation before the resurgence of Hinduism, and Muslim conquest in the region.
Jain sculptures or Jain idols are the images depicting Tirthankaras. These images are worshiped by the followers of Jainism. The sculpture can depict any of the twenty-four tirthankaras with images depicting Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha, or Mahāvīra being more popular. Jain sculptures are an example of Jain art. There is a long history of construction of Jain sculptures. Early examples include Lohanipur Torsos which has been regarded to be from the Maurya period, and images from the Kushan period from Mathura.
Pundranagar in Paundrabhukti was the most important city in the ancient Bengal region, now identified with the current site of Mahasthan, located in Bogra, Bangladesh. It was a vibrant administrative, religious and cultural centre from the 3rd century BC to the 12th century AD that is from the Maurya Empire time to the Sena dynasty period. Archaeological remains and literary descriptions speak of a truly planned and magnificent city. City walls, elaborate gates, palaces, common dwellings, assembly halls, temples, viharas, shops, ponds and even suburban temples and viharas characterised the city; Chinese pilgrim, Xuanzang, visiting in the 7th century AD, particularly mentions ponds, orchards, flowers and pleasure gardens.
Jainism is an Indian religion which is traditionally believed to be propagated by twenty-four spiritual teachers known as tirthankara. Broadly, Jainism is divided into two major schools of thought, Digambara and Śvetāmbara. These are further divided into different sub-sects and traditions. While there are differences in practices, the core philosophy and main principles of each sect is the same.
Jain art refers to religious works of art associated with Jainism. Even though Jainism has spread only in some parts of India, it has made a significant contribution to Indian art and architecture.
The Gauḍa kingdom was a kingdom during the Classical era in the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the Gauda region of Bengal in 4th century CE or possibly earlier.
The Ahichchhatra Jain temples is a group of Jain temples in Ahichchhatra village in Aonla tehsil of Bareilly district in Uttar Pradesh, North India. Ahichchhatra is believed to be the place where Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankar of Jainism, attained Kevala Jnana.
