History of entheogenic drugs

Last updated

Entheogenic drugs have been used by various groups for thousands of years. There are numerous historical reports as well as modern, contemporary reports of indigenous groups using entheogens, chemical substances used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context. [1] [2]

Contents

Early history

One of the oldest known entheogens is peyote, which has been used for at least 5,700 years by Native Americans in Mexico. [3]

20th century

In 1912 Merck laboratories synthesized the drug 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), currently known as ecstasy, [4] It was used to enhance psychotherapy beginning in the 1970s and became popular as a street drug in the 1980s. [5] [6]

In 1928 Heinrich Klüver was the first to systematically study its psychological effects in a small book called Mescal and Mechanisms of Hallucinations. The book stated that the drug could be used to research the unconscious mind. He coined the term "cobweb figure" in the 1920s to describe one of the four form constant geometric visual hallucinations experienced in the early stage of a mescaline trip: "Colored threads running together in a revolving center, the whole similar to a cobweb". The other three are the chessboard design, tunnel, and spiral. Klüver wrote that "many 'atypical' visions are upon close inspection nothing but variations of these form-constants." [7]

In 1953 Aldous Huxley published The Doors of Perception , in it elaborates on his psychedelic experience under the influence of mescaline in May 1953. Huxley recalls the insights he experienced, ranging from the "purely aesthetic" to "sacramental vision". [8]

MK Ultra

R. Gordon Wasson had a funded expedition in 1956 [9] by the CIA's MK-Ultra subproject 58, as was revealed by documents [10] obtained by John Marks [11] under the Freedom of Information Act. The documents state that Wasson was an 'unwitting' participant in the project. [10]

The funding was provided under the cover name of the Geschickter Fund for Medical Research (credited by Wasson at the end of his subsequent Life piece about the expedition).

On May 13, 1957, Life magazine published an article titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom", which introduced psychoactive mushrooms to a wide audience for the first time. Just a few days later a personal account by his wife about their research in Mexico was published in the magazine This Week., [12] it was written by R. Gordon Wasson, ethnomycologist, and Vice President for Public Relations at J.P. Morgan & Co. [13] [14] [15] [16] about the use of psilocybin mushrooms in religious rites of the indigenous Mazatec people of Mexico.

In 1957 Gastón Guzmán Huerta, a Mexican mycologist and anthropologist, was invited by the University of Mexico to assist Rolf Singer, who would arrive to Mexico in 1958 to study the hallucinogenic mushroom genus Psilocybe . While they were in the Huautla de Jiménez region, in their last day of the expeditions, they met R. Gordon Wasson. Guzman became an authority on the genus Psilocybe.

In 1958, the French mycologist Roger Heim brought psilocybin tablets to Mazatec curandera María Sabina, that was the first velada using the active principle of the mushrooms rather than the raw mushrooms themselves took place. [17] In 1962, R. Gordon Wasson and Albert Hofmann went to Mexico to visit her. They also brought a bottle of psilocybin pills. [18] Sandoz was marketing them under the brand name Indocybin—"indo" for both Indian and indole (the nucleus of their chemical structures) and "cybin" for the main molecular constituent, psilocybin. Hofmann gave his synthesized entheogen to the curandera. "Of course, Wasson recalled, Albert Hofmann is so conservative he always gives too little a dose, and it didn't have any effect." Hofmann had a different interpretation: "activation of the pills, which must dissolve in the stomach, takes place after 30 to 45 minutes. In contrast, the mushrooms when chewed, work faster as the drug is absorbed immediately". To settle her doubts about the pills, more were distributed. María, her daughter, and the shaman, Don Aurelio, ingested up to 30 mg each, a moderately high dose by current standards but not perhaps by the more experienced practitioners. At dawn, their Mazatec interpreter reported that María Sabina felt there was little difference between the pills and the mushrooms. She thanked Hofmann for the bottle of pills, saying that she would now be able to serve people even when no mushrooms were available. [19] [20]

Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert

Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert studied and researched the effects of LSD and hallucinogenic mushrooms in the United States and Mexico.

Harvard psilocybin project

The Harvard Psilocybin Project was a series of experiments in psychology conducted by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. The founding board of the project consisted of Leary, Aldous Huxley, David McClelland (Leary's and Alpert's superior at Harvard University), [21] Frank Barron, Ralph Metzner, and two graduate students who were working on a project with mescaline. [22]

In 1960, Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert ordered psilocybin from Swiss-based company Sandoz with the intent to test if different administration modes lead to different experiences. To a greater extent, they believed that psilocybin could be the solution for the emotional problems of the Western man. [23]

Zihuatanejo Project

The Zihuatanejo Project was a psychedelic training center and intentional community created during the beginning of the counterculture of the 1960s by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert under the umbrella of their nonprofit group, the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF). The community was located in Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, Mexico, and took up residence at the Hotel Catalina in the summers of 1962 and 1963. [24]

Leary and Alpert first discovered the town of Zihuatanejo in 1960. After the Marsh Chapel Experiment in 1962 they decided the area would make a good location for a training center. [25] The idea for the community was influenced by Aldous Huxley's fictional novel, Island (1962). [26] [27]

Thousands of people applied to the IFIF in the hopes of joining the project in Zihuatanejo. [28] Out of this pool of applicants, a small, select group of people were chosen. Amenities cost $200 a month per person, including food and lodging in bungalows near a secluded beach. Fishermen supplied a bounty of fresh fish from the bay. During the first training session in 1962, Leary and 35 guests rented the Catalina Hotel for a month using their own version of the Tibetan Book of the Dead as a guide book for LSD sessions; Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert helped manage the group. [29] Group LSD sessions began in the morning with the consumption of liquid LSD, with a dosage of 100 to 500 micrograms ingested by participating individuals; the experience would usually last until late afternoon.

Concord Prison Experiment

The Concord Prison Experiment was designed to evaluate whether the experiences produced by the psychoactive drug psilocybin, derived from psilocybin mushrooms, combined with psychotherapy, could inspire prisoners to leave their antisocial lifestyles behind once they were released. How well it worked was to be judged by comparing the recidivism rate of subjects who received psilocybin with the average for other Concord inmates.

The experiment was conducted between February 1961 and January 1963 in Concord State Prison, a maximum-security prison for young offenders, in Concord, Massachusetts by a team of Harvard University researchers. [30] The team were under the direction of Timothy Leary and included Michael Hollingshead, Allan Cohen, Alfred Alschuder, George Litwin, Ralph Metzner, Gunther Weil, and Ralph Schwitzgebel, with Madison Presnell as the medical and psychiatric adviser. The original study involved the administration of psilocybin manufactured by Sandoz Pharmaceuticals to assist group psychotherapy for 32 prisoners in an effort to reduce recidivism rates. The researchers would administer psilocybin to themselves along with the prisoners, on the grounds of "[creating] a sense of equality and shared experience, and to dispel the fear that often accompanies relationships between [experimenters] and [subjects]". [31]

Alexander Shulgin

Alexander Shulgin obtained a DEA Schedule I license for an analytical laboratory, which allowed him to synthesize and possess any otherwise ilcit drug, in order to work with scheduled psychoactive chemicals and set up a chemical synthesis laboratory in a small building behind his house, which gave him a great deal of career autonomy. Shulgin used this freedom to synthesize and test the effects of potentially psychoactive drugs such as 2C-B. In 1970s developed new methods of synthesis of MDMA, a drug commonly associated with dance parties, raves, and electronic dance music. [32] It may be mixed with other substances such as ephedrine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. In 2016, about 21 million people between the ages of 15 and 64 used ecstasy (0.3% of the world population). [33] This was broadly similar to the percentage of people who use cocaine or amphetamines, but lower than for cannabis or opioids. [33] In the United States, as of 2017, about 7% of people have used MDMA at some point in their lives and 0.9% have used it in the last year. [34]

Terence McKenna

Terence McKenna, along with his brother Dennis, developed a technique for cultivating psilocybin mushrooms using spores they brought to America from the Amazon. [35] [36] [37] [38] In 1976, the brothers published what they had learned in the book Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide, under the pseudonyms "O.T. Oss" and "O.N. Oeric". [39] [40] McKenna and his brother were the first to come up with a reliable method for cultivating psilocybin mushrooms at home. [36] [37] [39] [41] As ethnobiologist Jonathan Ott explains, "[the] authors adapted San Antonio's technique (for producing edible mushrooms by casing mycelial cultures on a rye grain substrate; San Antonio 1971) to the production of Psilocybe [Stropharia] cubensis. The new technique involved the use of ordinary kitchen implements, and for the first time the layperson was able to produce a potent entheogen in his [or her] own home, without access to sophisticated technology, equipment, or chemical supplies." [42] When the 1986 revised edition was published, the Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide had sold over 100,000 copies. [39] [40] [43]

Heffter Research Institute

In 1993 by David E. Nichols, Mark Geyer, George Greer, Charles Grob, and Dennis McKenna founded the Heffter Research Institute, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that promotes research with classic hallucinogens and psychedelics, predominantly psilocybin, to contribute to a greater understanding of the mind and to alleviate suffering. Founded in 1993 as a virtual institute, Heffter primarily funds academic and clinical scientists and made more than $3.1 million in grants between 2011 and 2014. [44] [45] [46] [47] Heffter's recent clinical studies have focused on psilocybin-assisted treatment for end-of-life anxiety and depression in cancer patients, as well as alcohol and nicotine addiction. Several Heffter-supported studies on Spiritual experiences and practices involving ayahuasca and psilocybin have been published.[ citation needed ]

Influence on artistic movements

Psilocybe Mushrooms statues Psilocybe Mushrooms statues.jpg
Psilocybe Mushrooms statues

Some of the figures are were-eagle, bat-like features, and were-jaguars, most common, however, is the jaguar transformation figurine which show a wide variety of styles, ranging from human-like figurines to those that are almost completely jaguar, and several where the subject appears to be in a stage of transformation. [48]

Influence on religion

The Maya displayed characteristic Mesoamerican mythology, with a strong emphasis on an individual being a communicator between the physical world and the spiritual world. Mushroom stone effigies, dated to 1000 BCE, give evidence that mushrooms were at least revered in a religious way. [49]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timothy Leary</span> American psychologist (1920–1996)

Timothy Francis Leary was an American psychologist and author known for his strong advocacy of psychedelic drugs. Evaluations of Leary are polarized, ranging from bold oracle to publicity hound. According to poet Allen Ginsberg, he was "a hero of American consciousness", and writer Tom Robbins called him a "brave neuronaut". During the 1960s and 1970s, Leary was arrested 36 times. President Richard Nixon called him "the most dangerous man in America".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin</span> Chemical compound found in some species of mushrooms

Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens, but psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera. Psilocybin is itself biologically inactive but is quickly converted by the body to psilocin, which has mind-altering effects similar, in some aspects, to those of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). In general, the effects include euphoria, visual and mental hallucinations, changes in perception, distorted sense of time, and perceived spiritual experiences. It can also cause adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terence McKenna</span> American ethnobotanist and mystic (1946–2000)

Terence Kemp McKenna was an American ethnobotanist and mystic who advocated the responsible use of naturally occurring psychedelic plants. He spoke and wrote about a variety of subjects, including psychedelic drugs, plant-based entheogens, shamanism, metaphysics, alchemy, language, philosophy, culture, technology, ethnomycology, environmentalism, and the theoretical origins of human consciousness. He was called the "Timothy Leary of the '90s", "one of the leading authorities on the ontological foundations of shamanism", and the "intellectual voice of rave culture".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin mushroom</span> Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychonautics</span> Methodology for describing and explaining the subjective effects of altered states of consciousness

Psychonautics refers both to a methodology for describing and explaining the subjective effects of altered states of consciousness, including those induced by meditation or mind-altering substances, and to a research cabal in which the researcher voluntarily immerses themselves into an altered mental state in order to explore the accompanying experiences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of LSD</span>

The psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) was first synthesized on November 16, 1938, by the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in the Sandoz laboratories in Basel, Switzerland. It was not until five years later on April 19, 1943, that the psychedelic properties were found. Today, the discovery of LSD is celebrated worldwide during the annual Bicycle Day holiday, serving also as the day celebrating the psychedelic revolution in general.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heffter Research Institute</span> Nonprofit organization

The Heffter Research Institute is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization that promotes research with classic hallucinogens and psychedelics, predominantly psilocybin, to contribute to a greater understanding of the mind and to alleviate suffering. Founded in 1993 as a virtual institute, Heffter primarily funds academic and clinical scientists and made more than $3.1 million in grants between 2011 and 2014. Heffter's recent clinical studies have focused on psilocybin-assisted treatment for end-of-life anxiety and depression in cancer patients, as well as alcohol and nicotine addiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harvard Psilocybin Project</span> Series of psychological research studies into the effects of psychedelics

The Harvard Psilocybin Project was a series of experiments aimed at exploring the effects of psilocybin intake on the human mind conducted by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. The founding board of the project consisted of Leary, Aldous Huxley, David McClelland, Frank Barron, Ralph Metzner, and two graduate students who were working on a project with mescaline.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ralph Metzner</span> German-American psychologist, psychotherapist, and researcher (1936–2019)

Ralph Metzner was a German-born American psychologist, writer and researcher, who participated in psychedelic research at Harvard University in the early 1960s with Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert. Metzner was a psychotherapist, and Professor Emeritus of psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies in San Francisco, where he was formerly the Academic Dean and Academic Vice-president.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marsh Chapel Experiment</span> 1962 psychological research study on religious experiences of psilocybin users

The Marsh Chapel Experiment, also called the "Good Friday Experiment", was an experiment conducted on Good Friday, April 20, 1962 at Boston University's Marsh Chapel. Walter N. Pahnke, a graduate student in theology at Harvard Divinity School, designed the experiment under the supervision of Timothy Leary, Richard Alpert, and the Harvard Psilocybin Project. Pahnke's experiment investigated whether psilocybin would act as a reliable entheogen in religiously predisposed subjects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Concord Prison Experiment</span> 1961-1963 study testing the impacts of psilocybin on recidivism rates at Concord Prison, MA

The Concord Prison Experiment, conducted from 1961 to 1963, was designed to evaluate whether the experiences produced by the psychoactive drug psilocybin, derived from psilocybin mushrooms, combined with psychotherapy, could inspire prisoners to leave their antisocial lifestyles behind once they were released. How well it worked was to be judged by comparing the recidivism rate of subjects who received psilocybin with the average for other Concord inmates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnomycology</span> Study of the human use of fungi, especially psychedelics

Ethnomycology is the study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi and can be considered a subfield of ethnobotany or ethnobiology. Although in theory the term includes fungi used for such purposes as tinder, medicine and food, it is often used in the context of the study of psychoactive mushrooms such as psilocybin mushrooms, the Amanita muscaria mushroom, and the ergot fungus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan Ott</span> American ethnobotanist and writer

Jonathan Ott is an ethnobotanist, writer, translator, publisher, natural products chemist and botanical researcher in the area of entheogens and their cultural and historical uses, and helped coin the term "entheogen".

<i>High Priest</i> (book) 1968 book by Timothy Leary

High Priest is a 1968 book by American psychologist and writer Timothy Leary, published by New American Library. Written before Leary's incarceration on drug-related charges, it is an autobiographical account of his experiences from 1959 to 1962, a period that roughly coincides with his employment as a lecturer in clinical psychology at Harvard University.

Ego death is a "complete loss of subjective self-identity". The term is used in various intertwined contexts, with related meanings. The 19th-century philosopher and psychologist William James uses the synonymous term "self-surrender" and Jungian psychology uses the synonymous term psychic death, referring to a fundamental transformation of the psyche. In death and rebirth mythology, ego death is a phase of self-surrender and transition, as described later by Joseph Campbell in his research on the mythology of the Hero's Journey. It is a recurrent theme in world mythology and is also used as a metaphor in some strands of contemporary western thinking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">League for Spiritual Discovery</span> 1960s spiritual society advocating for the legalization of LSD

League for Spiritual Discovery (LSD) was a spiritual organization inspired by the works of Timothy Leary, and strove for legal use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for the purpose of meditation, insight, and spiritual understanding. It was in existence during the mid-to-late 1960s, and eventually closed by Leary. The New York Center for the League of Spiritual Discovery, in existence for around a year, was co-founded by Timothy Leary and Nina Graboi in 1966. The center was the first LSD-based meditation center in Manhattan.

Entheogenic drugs have been used by various groups for thousands of years. There are numerous historical reports as well as modern, contemporary reports of indigenous groups using entheogens, chemical substances used in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context.

<i>The Psychedelic Experience</i> Book by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert

The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on The Tibetan Book of the Dead is a 1964 book about using psychedelic drugs that was coauthored by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert. All three authors had taken part in research investigating the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drugs such as LSD, psilocybin and mescaline in addition to the ability of these substances to sometimes induce religious and mystical states of consciousness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zihuatanejo Project</span> Psychedelic training center and intentional community

The Zihuatanejo Project was a psychedelic training center and intentional community created during the beginning of the counterculture of the 1960s by Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert under the umbrella of their nonprofit group, the International Federation for Internal Freedom (IFIF). The community was located in Zihuatanejo, Guerrero, Mexico, and took up residence at the Hotel Catalina in the summers of 1962 and 1963.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nina Graboi</span> New Age spiritual leader

Nina Graboi was a Holocaust survivor, artist, writer, spiritual seeker, philosopher, and influential figure in the sixties psychedelic movement. After fleeing the Nazis in Europe and spending three months in a detention camp in North Africa, she and her husband came to United States as refugees. As a close friend and colleague of Timothy Leary's and Richard Alpert's, she was co-founder and director of the League for Spiritual Discovery's New York Center during the psychedelic era. The center was the first LSD-based meditation center in Manhattan. She also worked closely with Jean Houston, Abraham Maslow, Stanley Krippner, and Alan Watts.

References

  1. Souza, Rafael Sampaio Octaviano de; Albuquerque, Ulysses Paulino de; Monteiro, Júlio Marcelino; Amorim, Elba Lúcia Cavalcanti de (October 2008). "Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 51 (5): 937–947. doi: 10.1590/S1516-89132008000500010 .
  2. Samorini, Giorgio (2019-06-01). "The oldest archeological data evidencing the relationship of Homo sapiens with psychoactive plants: A worldwide overview". Journal of Psychedelic Studies. 3 (2): 63–80. doi: 10.1556/2054.2019.008 .
  3. El-Seedi HR, De Smet PA, Beck O, Possnert G, Bruhn JG (October 2005). "Prehistoric peyote use: alkaloid analysis and radiocarbon dating of archaeological specimens of Lophophora from Texas". J Ethnopharmacol. 101 (1–3): 238–42. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.04.022. PMID   15990261.
  4. Freudenmann RW, Öxler F, Bernschneider-Reif S (August 2006). "The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents" (PDF). Addiction. 101 (9): 1241–1245. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01511.x. PMID   16911722. Although MDMA was, in fact, first synthesized at Merck in 1912, it was not tested pharmacologically because it was only an unimportant precursor in a new synthesis for haemostatic substances.
  5. Anderson L, ed. (18 May 2014). "MDMA". Drugs.com. Drugsite Trust. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
  6. "DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. February 2016. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
  7. A Dictionary of Hallucations. Oradell, NJ.: Springer. 2010. p. 102.
  8. Huxley, Aldous (1954) The Doors of Perception, Chatto and Windus, p. 15
  9. Irvin, Jan (2013). "R. Gordon Wasson: The Man, the Legend, the Myth". In Rush, John (ed.). Entheogens and the Development of Culture. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books. location 10098-10170. ISBN   978-1-58394-624-4.
  10. 1 2 CIA. "MKUltra Subproject 58 doc 17457 -- JP Morgan & Co. (see Wasson file)" (PDF). National Security Archive, George Washington University. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  11. Marks, John (1979). The Search for the Manchurian Candidate. Times Books. p. 114. ISBN   978-0-8129-0773-5.
  12. Bartlett, Amy (2020-11-11). "The Cost of Omission: Dr. Valentina Wasson and Getting Our Stories Right". Chacruna. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  13. "Medicine: Mushroom Madness". Time. 1958-06-16. Archived from the original on July 15, 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  14. Tarinas, Joaquim. "ROBERT GORDON WASSON Seeking the Magic Mushroom". Imaginaria.org. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
  15. "R. Gordon Wasson: Archives". Harvard University Herbaria. Archived from the original on 24 August 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  16. Jacobs, Travis Beal (2001). Eisenhower at Columbia. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 99. ISBN   978-0-7658-0036-7.
  17. Verroust, Vincent (June 2019). "De la découverte des champignons à psilocybine à la renaissance psychédélique". Ethnopharmacologia (61): 12.
  18. "Ethnopharmacognosy and Human Pharmacology of Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A". sagewisdom.org. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
  19. Psychedelics Encyclopedia, pp. 237–238
  20. "LIFE on LSD". Life . Archived from the original on 26 October 2010.
  21. "Leary Lectures at Harvard for First Time in 20 Years". The New York Times . 25 April 1983. Retrieved 16 February 2018.
  22. Stafford, Peter; Jeremy Bigwood (1993). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Ronin Publishing. ISBN   0-914171-51-8.
  23. Andrew T. Weil, The Strange Case of the Harvard Drug Scandal, Psychedelic-library.org, 5 November 1963
  24. Leary, Timothy; Richard Alpert; Ralph Metzner. 1964. "Rationale of the Mexican Psychedelic Training Center". In Richard Blum: Utopiates: The Use and Users of LSD-25, 178-186. New York: Atherton Press. ISBN   0202363244
  25. Conners, Peter. 2010. White Hand Society: The Psychedelic Partnership of Timothy Leary & Allen Ginsberg. City Lights Books. ISBN   0872865754
  26. Greenfield, Robert. 2006. Timothy Leary: A Biography. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN   0-15603-206-6. 186.
  27. Lattin, Don. 2011. The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil Killed the Fifties and Ushered in a New Age for America. HarperCollins. ISBN   0-06165-594-5. 2011, 99, 112.
  28. Lee, Martin A. & Shlain, Bruce. 1992. "Preaching LSD". Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond, Grove Press, ISBN   0-8021-3062-3. 96-98.
  29. Dass, Ram; Metzner, Ralph; Bravo, Gary. 2010. Birth of a Psychedelic Culture: Conversations about Leary, the Harvard Experiments, Millbrook and the Sixties. Synergetic Press. ISBN   9780907791386
  30. Leary, Timothy; Metzner, Ralph; Presnell, Madison; Weil, Gunther; Schwitzgebel, Ralph; Kinne, Sarah (July 1965). "A New Behavior Change Program Using Psilocybin". Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice. 2 (2): 61–72. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1022.1124 . doi:10.1037/h0088612.
  31. Leary, Timothy; Litwin, George; Metzner, Ralph (December 1963). "Reactions to psilocybin administered in a supportive environment". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 137 (6): 561–573. doi:10.1097/00005053-196312000-00007. PMID   14087676. S2CID   39777572.
  32. World Health Organization (2004). Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence. World Health Organization. pp. 97–. ISBN   978-92-4-156235-5. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016.
  33. 1 2 World Drug Report 2018 (PDF). United Nations. June 2018. p. 7. ISBN   978-92-1-148304-8 . Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  34. "MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
  35. Lin, Tao (13 August 2014). "Psilocybin, the Mushroom, and Terence McKenna". Vice. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
  36. 1 2 Letcher 2007, pp. 253–274.
  37. 1 2 Davis, Erik (May 2000). "Terence McKenna's last trip". Wired . Vol. 8, no. 5. Retrieved 2013-09-10.
  38. McKenna 1993, pp. 205–07.
  39. 1 2 3 Pinchbeck 2003, pp. 232–235.
  40. 1 2 Letcher 2007, p. 278.
  41. Martin, Douglas (September 10, 2013). "Terence McKenna, 53, dies; Patron of psychedelic drugs". The New York Times . Retrieved 2012-09-12.
  42. Ott J. (1993). Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, their Plant Sources and History. Kennewick, Washington: Natural Products Company. p. 290. ISBN   978-0-9614234-3-8.; see San Antonio JP. (1971). "A laboratory method to obtain fruit from cased grain spawn of the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus bisporus" . Mycologia. 63 (1): 16–21. doi:10.2307/3757680. JSTOR   3757680. PMID   5102274.
  43. McKenna & McKenna 1976, Preface (revised ed.).
  44. "Guidestar". Guidestar USA. 1 May 2016.
  45. "Guidestar" (PDF). Guidestar. January 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  46. "Guidestar" (PDF). January 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  47. "Guidestar" (PDF). January 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
  48. Diehl 2004, p. 106.
  49. Tedlock 1992, pp. 46–53.

Works cited