Psychedelic experience

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A psychedelic experience (known colloquially as a trip) is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of a psychedelic substance (most commonly LSD, mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, or DMT).[ citation needed ] For example, an acid trip is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of LSD, while a mushroom trip is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of psilocybin. Psychedelic experiences feature alterations in normal perception such as visual distortions and a subjective loss of self-identity, sometimes interpreted as mystical experiences. Psychedelic experiences lack predictability, as they can range from being highly pleasurable (known as a good trip) to frightening (known as a bad trip). The outcome of a psychedelic experience is heavily influenced by the person's mood, personality, expectations, and environment (also known as set and setting). [1]

Contents

Researchers have interpreted psychedelic experiences in light of a range of scientific theories, including model psychosis theory, filtration theory, psychoanalytic theory, entropic brain theory, integrated information theory, and predictive processing. Psychedelic experiences are also induced and interpreted in religious and spiritual contexts.

Along with psilocybin's unique effect on the state of mind, psilocybin has been subject to the idea of being used for therapeutic treatments. This rapidly developing field of psilocybin-assisted therapy is worth mentioning due to the promising results of studies targeting a variety of mental disorders like depression [2] , post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [3] , and obsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD) [4] .

Etymology

The term psychedelic was coined by the psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond during written correspondence with author Aldous Huxley and presented to the New York Academy of Sciences by Osmond in 1957. [5] It is derived from the Greek words ψυχή, psychḗ, 'soul, mind' and δηλείν, dēleín, 'to manifest' thus meaning "mind manifesting," the implication being that psychedelics can develop unused potentials of the human mind. [6] The term trip was first coined by US Army scientists during the 1950s when they were experimenting with LSD. [7]

Phenomenology

Despite several attempts that have been made, starting in the 19th and 20th centuries, to define common phenomenological structures of the effects produced by classic psychedelics, a universally accepted taxonomy does not yet exist. [8] [9]

Visual alteration

A prominent element of psychedelic experiences is visual alteration. [8] Psychedelic visual alteration often includes spontaneous formation of complex flowing geometric visual patterning in the visual field. [9] When the eyes are open, the visual alteration is overlaid onto the objects and spaces in the physical environment; when the eyes are closed the visual alteration is seen in the "inner world" behind the eyelids. [9] These visual effects increase in complexity with higher dosages, and also when the eyes are closed. [9] The visual alteration does not normally constitute hallucinations, because the person undergoing the experience can still distinguish between real and imagined visual phenomena, though in some cases, true hallucinations are present. [8] More rarely, psychedelic experiences can include complex hallucinations of objects, animals, people, or even whole landscapes. [8] Visual alterations also include other effects such as afterimages, shifting of color hues, and pareidolia. The appearance of colors and light are usually enhanced.

Mystical experiences

A number of studies by Roland R. Griffiths and other researchers have concluded that high doses of psilocybin and other classic psychedelics trigger mystical experiences in most research participants. [10] [11] [12] [13] Mystical experiences have been measured by a number of psychometric scales, including the Hood Mysticism Scale, the Spiritual Transcendence Scale, and the Mystical Experience Questionnaire. [13] The revised version of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire, for example, asks participants about four dimensions of their experience, namely the "mystical" quality, positive mood such as the experience of amazement, the loss of the usual sense of time and space, and the sense that the experience cannot be adequately conveyed through words. [13] The questions on the "mystical" quality in turn probe multiple aspects: the sense of "pure" being, the sense of unity with one's surroundings, the sense that what one experienced was real, and the sense of sacredness. [13] Some researchers have questioned the interpretation of the results from these studies and whether the framework and terminology of mysticism are appropriate in a scientific context, while other researchers have responded to those criticisms and argued that descriptions of mystical experiences are compatible with a scientific worldview. [14] [15] [16]

A group of researchers concluded in a 2011 study that psilocybin "occasions personally and spiritually significant mystical experiences that predict long-term changes in behaviors, attitudes and values". [17]

Some research has found similarities between psychedelic experiences and non-ordinary forms of consciousness experienced in meditation [18] and near-death experiences. [19] The phenomenon of ego dissolution is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience. [20] [21] [22]

Individuals who have psychedelic experiences often describe what they experienced as "more real" than ordinary experience. For example, the psychologist Benny Shanon, after observing ayahuasca trips, referred to "the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion." [23] Similarly, the psychiatrist Stanislav Grof described the LSD experience as "complex revelatory insights into the nature of existence… typically accompanied by a sense of certainty that this knowledge is ultimately more relevant and 'real' than the perceptions and beliefs we share in everyday life." [24]

Bad trips

A "bad trip" is a highly unpleasant psychedelic experience. [8] [25] A bad trip on psilocybin, for instance, often features intense anxiety, confusion, agitation, or even psychotic episodes. [26] Bad trips can be connected to the anxious ego-dissolution (AED) dimension of the APZ questionnaire used in research on psychedelic experiences. [8] As of 2011, exact data on the frequency of bad trips are not available. [26] Some research suggests that the risk of a bad trip on psilocybin is higher when multiple drugs are used, when the user has a history of certain mental illnesses, and when the user is not supervised by a sober person. [25]

In clinical research settings, precautions including the screening and preparation of participants, the training of the session monitors who will be present during the experience, and the selection of appropriate physical setting can minimize the likelihood of psychological distress. [27] Researchers have suggested that the presence of professional "trip sitters" (i.e., session monitors) may significantly reduce the negative experiences associated with a bad trip. [28] In most cases in which anxiety arises during a supervised psychedelic experience, reassurance from the session monitor is adequate to resolve it; however, if distress becomes intense it can be treated pharmacologically, for example with the benzodiazepine diazepam. [27]

Research shows that preparing for the psychedelic experience, as well as the set and setting of the individual and environment they will be in, can help mitigate "bad trips''. [29] [30] Harvard Psychologist Timothy Leary has said that "set" and "setting" are important to the experience. [29] [30] [31] Set refers to the participants' internal state – their mental, emotional and physical state, as well as their intentions for the experience (whether they want to solve a complex problem, discover the underlying secrets of the universe, or heal from a past trauma) – the better these preliminary conditions, the better the experience usually goes. [29] [30] Setting refers to the environment the experience will take place in. Leary and others have found that, due to the highly suggestible nature of the psychedelic experience, the environment the participant is in plays a critical role. [29] [30] [32] For example, a warmly decorated room with a comfortable couch, nice music and an overall welcoming atmosphere will have a much more positive effect than a cold stainless steel and concrete reinforced hospital room. [29] [30] Taking these necessary precautions before a psychedelic experience, along with the presence of trained professionals, have been shown to significantly reduce an overall negative experience. [29] [30]

The psychiatrist Stanislav Grof wrote that unpleasant psychedelic experiences are not necessarily unhealthy or undesirable, arguing that they may have potential for psychological healing and lead to breakthrough and resolution of unresolved psychic issues. [33] [ page needed ] Drawing on narrative theory, the authors of a 2021 study of 50 users of psychedelics found that many described bad trips as having been sources of insight or even turning points in life. [28]

Scientific models

Link R. Swanson divides scientific frameworks for understanding psychedelic experiences into two waves. In the first wave, encompassing nineteenth- and twentieth-century frameworks, he includes model psychosis theory (the psychotomimetic paradigm), filtration theory, and psychoanalytic theory. [9] In the second wave of theories, encompassing twenty-first-century frameworks, Swanson includes entropic brain theory, integrated information theory, and predictive processing. [9]

Model psychosis theory

Researchers studying mescaline in the early twentieth century and LSD in the mid-twentieth century took interest in these drugs as producing a temporary "model psychosis" that could assist researchers and medical students in understanding the experiences of patients with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. [34]

It was popular to compare between experiences of psychedelics and psychosis in the mid-20th century. [35] The scales used in psychosis and psychedelic research, in the late-20th and 21st century, are more different. [36] Despite the many similarities that were observed between experiences of psychedelics and psychosis in the past, contemporary psychosis and psychedelic research highlight some features more than others (since they have different goals and assumptions), such as mysticism, connectedness, awe, peace, ego dissolution, hallucinations, suspiciousness, disorganization, hostility, grandiosity, and withdrawal. [37]

Filtration theory

Aldous Huxley and Humphrey Osmond applied the pre-existing ideas of filtration theory, which held that the brain filters what enters into consciousness, to explain psychedelic experiences (and it is from this paradigm that the term psychedelic is derived). [9] Huxley believed that the brain was filtering reality itself and that psychedelics granted conscious access to "Mind at Large," whereas Osmond believed that the brain was filtering aspects of the mind out of consciousness. [9] Swanson writes that Osmond's view seems "less radical, more compatible with materialist science, and less epistemically and ontologically committed" than Huxley's. [9] Supporting this theory, research has found that LSD disrupts thalamic gating, leading to altered perceptions by allowing more information to flow through the brain's gatekeeping mechanisms. [38]

Psychoanalytic theory

Psychoanalytic theory was the predominant interpretive framework in mid-twentieth-century psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. [9] For instance, Czech psychiatrist Stanislav Grof characterised psychedelic experiencing as "non-specific amplification of unconscious mental processes", and he analysed the phenomenology of the LSD experience (particularly the experience of what he termed psychospiritual death and rebirth) in terms of Otto Rank's theory of the unresolved memory of the primal birth trauma. [39]

Entropic brain theory

Entropic brain theory is a theory of consciousness proposed in 2014 by neuroscientist Robin Carhart-Harris and colleagues that was inspired by research on psychedelic drugs. [40] The theory suggests that the entropy of brain activity within certain limits indexes the richness of conscious states, particularly under the influence of psychedelics. This theory posits that elevated brain entropy correlates with heightened informational richness, suggesting that psychedelics increase brain criticality, making it more sensitive to internal and external perturbations. [41] This enhanced state of brain activity is proposed to influence susceptibility to environmental factors ("set" and "setting") and potentially offer new insights for treating psychiatric and neurological disorders, including depression and disorders of consciousness.

Integrated information theory

Integrated information theory is a theory of consciousness proposing to explain all forms of consciousness, and has been applied specifically to psychedelic experiences by Andrew Gallimore. [42]

Predictive processing

Sarit Pink-Hashkes and colleagues have applied the predictive processing paradigm in neuroscience to psychedelic experiences in order to formalize the idea of the entropic brain. [43]

In religious and spiritual contexts

Alan Watts likened psychedelic experiencing to the transformations of consciousness that are undertaken in Taoism and Zen, which he says is, "more like the correction of faulty perception or the curing of a disease… not an acquisitive process of learning more and more facts or greater and greater skills, but rather an unlearning of wrong habits and opinions." [44] Watts further described the LSD experience as, "revelations of the secret workings of the brain, of the associative and patterning processes, the ordering systems which carry out all our sensing and thinking." [45]

According to Luis Luna, psychedelic experiences have a distinctly gnosis-like quality; it is a learning experience that elevates consciousness and makes a profound contribution to personal development. For this reason, the plant sources of some psychedelic drugs such as ayahuasca and mescaline-containing cacti are sometimes referred to as "plant teachers" by those using those drugs. [46]

Furthermore, psychedelic drugs have a history of religious use across the world that extends back for hundreds or perhaps thousands of years. [47] They are often called entheogens because of the kinds of experiences they can induce, [48] however various entheogens happen to also be hypnotics (muscimol mushrooms), deliriants ( jimsonweed ) or atypical/quasi-psychedelics like cannabis. Some small contemporary religious movements base their religious activities and beliefs around psychedelic experiences, such as Santo Daime [49] and the Native American Church. [50]

Psychedelic-Assisted Therapy

As mentioned in the beginning, psilocybin-assisted therapy has been proven to be beneficial when treating different kinds of psychiatric disorders due to its unique enhancements on the mind. Though the research with psilocybin-assisted therapy is fairly a new idea, its efficacy in improving mental disorders is undeniable.

Depression

Psilocybin is well known for its enhancements on the mind and overall mood, so it comes as no surprise that it was tested on individuals who suffer from depression. Psilocybin proved to be an efficient tool when it comes to treating, not only symptoms of depression, but also anxiety along with it. [2] It was also found that these results were long-term upholding the possibility of psilocybin being used as a long-term treatment. [2]

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Individuals who suffer from PTSD have also been proven to reap benefits from psilocybin-assisted therapy. [3] In this study it was found that MDMA had been very successful in reducing symptoms of PTSD, which led them to the conclusion that psilocybin would have very similar effects due to the similarities in these drugs. [3]

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

In a study that reviewed a variety of drugs to determine if it had an impact on symptoms of OCD, psilocybin was also tested and determined effective in reducing symptoms. [4] This reduction in symptoms applied to all individuals who participated in the study, proving psilocybin to be very reliable along with efficiency in reducing OCD symptoms. [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>N</i>,<i>N</i>-Dimethyltryptamine Chemical compound

N,N-Dimethyltryptamine is a substituted tryptamine that occurs in many plants and animals, including humans, and which is both a derivative and a structural analog of tryptamine. DMT is used as a psychedelic drug and prepared by various cultures for ritual purposes as an entheogen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LSD</span> Hallucinogenic drug

Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly known as LSD, is a potent psychedelic drug that intensifies thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception. Often referred to as acid or lucy, LSD can cause mystical, spiritual, or religious experiences. At higher doses, it primarily induces visual and auditory hallucinations. LSD is not considered addictive, because it does not produce compulsive drug-seeking behavior. Using LSD can lead to adverse psychological reactions, such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions. Additionally, it may trigger "flashbacks," also known as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), where individuals experience persistent visual distortions after use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin</span> Chemical compound found in some species of mushrooms

Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), and formerly sold under the brand name Indocybin, is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. Psilocybin is itself biologically inactive but is quickly converted by the body to psilocin, which has mind-altering effects similar, in some aspects, to those of other classical psychedelics. Effects include euphoria, hallucinations, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, and perceived spiritual experiences. It can also cause adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychedelic drug</span> Hallucinogenic class of psychoactive drug

Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states and a perceived "expansion of consciousness". Also referred to as classic hallucinogens or serotonergic hallucinogens, the term psychedelic is sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens, such as those which are atypical or adjacent to psychedelia like salvia and MDMA, respectively.

A bad trip is an acute adverse psychological reaction to the effects of psychoactive substances, namely psychedelics. There is no clear definition of what constitutes a bad trip. Additionally, knowledge on the cause of bad trips and who may be vulnerable to such experiences are limited. Existing studies report that possible adverse reactions include, anxiety, panic, depersonalization, ego dissolution, paranoia, as well as physiological symptoms such as dizziness and heart palpitations. However, most studies indicate that the set and setting of substance use influence how people respond.

An altered state of consciousness (ASC), also called an altered state of mind, altered mental status (AMS) or mind alteration, is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking state. It describes induced changes in one's mental state, almost always temporary. A synonymous phrase is "altered state of awareness".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin mushroom</span> Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms,shrooms, or broadly as hallucinogenic mushrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. The most potent species are members of genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens, but psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

Psychedelic therapy refers to the proposed use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin, ayahuasca, LSD, psilocin, mescaline (peyote), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT,Ibogaine,MDMA, to treat mental disorders. As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder</span> Medical condition

Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a non-psychotic disorder in which a person experiences apparent lasting or persistent visual hallucinations or perceptual distortions after using drugs, including but not limited to psychedelics, dissociatives, entactogens, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and SSRIs. Despite being designated as a hallucinogen-specific disorder, the specific contributory role of psychedelic drugs is unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marsh Chapel Experiment</span> 1962 psychological research study on religious experiences of psilocybin users

The Marsh Chapel Experiment, also called the "Good Friday Experiment", was an experiment conducted on Good Friday, April 20, 1962 at Boston University's Marsh Chapel. Walter N. Pahnke, a graduate student in theology at Harvard Divinity School, designed the experiment under the supervision of Timothy Leary, Richard Alpert, and the Harvard Psilocybin Project. Pahnke's experiment investigated whether psilocybin would act as a reliable entheogen in religiously predisposed subjects.

The Beckley Foundation is a UK-based think tank and UN-accredited NGO, dedicated to activating global drug policy reform and initiating scientific research into psychoactive substances. The foundation is a charitable trust which collaborates with leading scientific and political institutions worldwide to design and develop research and global policy initiatives. It also investigates consciousness and its modulation from a multidisciplinary perspective, working in collaboration with scientists. The foundation is based at Beckley Park near Oxford, United Kingdom. It was founded in 1998, and is directed by Amanda Feilding, Countess of Wemyss.

Ego death is a "complete loss of subjective self-identity". The term is used in various intertwined contexts, with related meanings. The 19th-century philosopher and psychologist William James uses the synonymous term "self-surrender", and Jungian psychology uses the synonymous term psychic death, referring to a fundamental transformation of the psyche. In death and rebirth mythology, ego death is a phase of self-surrender and transition, as described later by Joseph Campbell in his research on the mythology of the Hero's Journey. It is a recurrent theme in world mythology and is also used as a metaphor in some strands of contemporary western thinking.

Amanda Claire Marian Charteris, Countess of Wemyss and March, also known as Amanda Feilding, is an English drug policy reformer, lobbyist, and research coordinator. In 1998, she founded the Foundation to Further Consciousness, later renamed to the Beckley Foundation, a charitable trust which initiates, directs, and supports neuroscientific and clinical research into the effects of psychoactive substances on the brain and cognition. She has also co-authored over 50 papers published in peer-reviewed journals, according to the Foundation. The central aim of her research is to investigate new avenues of treatment for such mental illnesses as depression, anxiety, and addiction, as well as to explore methods of enhancing well-being and creativity.

Hallucinogens are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized as either being psychedelics, dissociatives, or deliriants.

Philosophy of psychedelics is the philosophical investigation of the psychedelic experience. While psychedelic, entheogenic or hallucinogenic substances have been used by many traditional cultures throughout history mostly for religious purposes, recorded philosophical speculation and analysis of these substances, their phenomenological effects and the relevance of these altered states of consciousness to philosophical questions is a relatively late phenomenon in the history of philosophy. Traditional cultures who use psychedelic substances such as the Amazonian and Indigenous Mexican peoples hold that ingesting medicinal plants such as Ayahuasca and Peyote allows one to commune with the beings of the spirit world.

Psychedelic microdosing involves consuming sub-threshold doses (microdoses) of serotonergic psychedelic drugs like LSD and psilocybin to potentially enhance creativity, energy, emotional balance, problem-solving abilities, and to address anxiety, depression, and addiction. This practice has gained popularity in the 21st century. A June 2024 report by the RAND Corporation suggests that among adults in the United States reporting the use of psilocybin in the past year, nearly half reported microdosing the last time they used it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MindMed Inc.</span> Psychedelic medicine biotech company

Mind Medicine (MindMed) Inc., doing business as MindMed, is a New York-based biotechnology company that is currently developing clinical and therapeutic applications for psychedelic and, more broadly, psychoplastogenic drugs.

Psychoplastogens are a group of small molecule drugs that produce rapid and sustained effects on neuronal structure and function, intended to manifest therapeutic benefit after a single administration. Several existing psychoplastogens have been identified and their therapeutic effects demonstrated; several are presently at various stages of development as medications including ketamine, MDMA, scopolamine, and the serotonergic psychedelics, including LSD, psilocin, DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT. Compounds of this sort are being explored as therapeutics for a variety of brain disorders including depression, addiction, and PTSD. The ability to rapidly promote neuronal changes via mechanisms of neuroplasticity was recently discovered as the common therapeutic activity and mechanism of action.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robin Carhart-Harris</span> British psychopharmacologist

Robin Lester Carhart-Harris is a British psychopharmacologist who is Ralph Metzner Distinguished Professor in the Department of Neurology at the University of California, San Francisco. Previously, he founded and was Head of the Centre for Psychedelic Research at Imperial College London.

A trip killer, or hallucinogen antidote, is a drug that aborts or reduces the effects of a hallucinogenic drug experience. As there are different types of hallucinogens that work in different ways, there are different types of trip killers. They can completely block or reduce the effects of hallucinogens or they can simply provide anxiety relief and sedation. Examples of trip killers, in the case of serotonergic psychedelics, include serotonin receptor antagonists, like antipsychotics and certain antidepressants, and benzodiazepines. Trip killers are sometimes used by recreational psychedelic users as a form of harm reduction to manage so-called bad trips, for instance difficult experiences with prominent anxiety. They can also be used clinically to manage effects of hallucinogens, like anxiety and psychomotor agitation, for instance in the emergency department.

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  46. ↑ Luna, Luis Eduardo (1984). "The concept of plants as teachers among four mestizo shamans of Iquitos, northeastern Peru" (PDF). Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 11 (2): 135–156. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(84)90036-9. PMID   6492831 . Retrieved 10 July 2020.
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  48. ↑ Rätsch, Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann, Christian (2001). Plants of the gods : their sacred, healing, and hallucinogenic powers (Rev. and expanded ed.). Rochester, Vt.: Healing Arts Press. ISBN   0892819790.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  50. ↑ Calabrese, Joseph D. (1997). "Spiritual healing and human development in the Native American church: Toward a cultural psychiatry of peyote". Psychoanalytic Review. 84 (2): 237–255. PMID   9211587.


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