Integrated information theory

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Phi; the symbol used for integrated information Phi-iit-symbol.svg
Phi; the symbol used for integrated information

Integrated information theory (IIT) proposes a mathematical model for the consciousness of a system. It comprises a framework ultimately intended to explain why some physical systems (such as human brains) are conscious, [1] and to be capable of providing a concrete inference about whether any physical system is conscious, to what degree, and what particular experience it has; why they feel the particular way they do in particular states (e.g. why our visual field appears extended when we gaze out at the night sky), [2] and what it would take for other physical systems to be conscious (Are other animals conscious? Might the whole universe be?). [3]

Contents

According to IIT, a system's consciousness (what it is like subjectively) is conjectured to be identical to its causal properties (what it is like objectively). Therefore, it should be possible to account for the conscious experience of a physical system by unfolding its complete causal powers. [4]

IIT was proposed by neuroscientist Giulio Tononi in 2004. [5] Despite significant interest, IIT remains controversial and has been widely criticized, including that it is unfalsifiable pseudoscience. [6]

Overview

Detailed description of the axioms and postulates of IIT by Giulio Tononi and Christof Koch. Axioms and postulates of integrated information theory.jpg
Detailed description of the axioms and postulates of IIT by Giulio Tononi and Christof Koch.

Relationship to the "hard problem of consciousness"

David Chalmers has argued that any attempt to explain consciousness in purely physical terms (i.e., to start with the laws of physics as they are currently formulated and derive the necessary and inevitable existence of consciousness) eventually runs into the so-called "hard problem". Rather than try to start from physical principles and arrive at consciousness, IIT "starts with consciousness" (accepts the existence of our own consciousness as certain) and reasons about the properties that a postulated physical substrate would need to have in order to account for it. The ability to perform this jump from phenomenology to mechanism rests on IIT's assumption that if the formal properties of a conscious experience can be fully accounted for by an underlying physical system, then the properties of the physical system must be constrained by the properties of the experience. The limitations on the physical system for consciousness to exist are unknown and consciousness may exist on a spectrum, as implied by studies involving split-brain patients [7] and conscious patients with large amounts of brain matter missing. [8]

Specifically, IIT moves from phenomenology to mechanism by attempting to identify the essential properties of conscious experience (dubbed "axioms") and, from there, the essential properties of conscious physical systems (dubbed "postulates").

Extensions

The calculation of even a modestly-sized system's is often computationally intractable, [9] so efforts have been made to develop heuristic or proxy measures of integrated information. For example, Masafumi Oizumi and colleagues have developed both [10] and geometric integrated information or , [11] which are practical approximations for integrated information. These are related to proxy measures developed earlier by Anil Seth and Adam Barrett. [12] However, none of these proxy measures have a mathematically proven relationship to the actual value, which complicates the interpretation of analyses that use them. They can give qualitatively different results even for very small systems. [13]

In 2021, Angus Leung and colleagues published a direct application of IIT's mathematical formalism to neural data. [14] To circumvent the computational challenges associated with larger datasets, the authors focused on neuronal population activity in the fly. The study showed that can readily be computed for smaller sets of neural data. Moreover, matching IIT's predictions, was significantly decreased when the animals underwent general anesthesia. [14]

A significant computational challenge in calculating integrated information is finding the minimum information partition of a neural system, which requires iterating through all possible network partitions. To solve this problem, Daniel Toker and Friedrich T. Sommer have shown that the spectral decomposition of the correlation matrix of a system's dynamics is a quick and robust proxy for the minimum information partition. [15]

While the algorithm [9] [16] for assessing a system's and conceptual structure is relatively straightforward, its high time complexity makes it computationally intractable for many systems of interest. [9] Heuristics and approximations can sometimes be used to provide ballpark estimates of a complex system's integrated information, but precise calculations are often impossible. These computational challenges, combined with the already difficult task of reliably and accurately assessing consciousness under experimental conditions, make testing many of the theory's predictions difficult.

Despite these challenges, researchers have attempted to use measures of information integration and differentiation to assess levels of consciousness in a variety of subjects. [17] [18] For instance, a recent study using a less computationally-intensive proxy for was able to reliably discriminate between varying levels of consciousness in wakeful, sleeping (dreaming vs. non-dreaming), anesthetized, and comatose (vegetative vs. minimally-conscious vs. locked-in) individuals. [19]

IIT also makes several predictions which fit well with existing experimental evidence, and can be used to explain some counterintuitive findings in consciousness research. [20] For example, IIT can be used to explain why some brain regions, such as the cerebellum do not appear to contribute to consciousness, despite their size and/or functional importance.

Reception

Integrated information theory has received both broad criticism and support.

Support

Neuroscientist Christof Koch, who has helped to develop later versions of the theory, has called IIT "the only really promising fundamental theory of consciousness". [21]

Neuroscientist and consciousness researcher Anil Seth is supportive of the theory, with some caveats, claiming that "conscious experiences are highly informative and always integrated."; and that "One thing that immediately follows from [IIT] is that you have a nice post hoc explanation for certain things we know about consciousness.". But he also claims "the parts of IIT that I find less promising are where it claims that integrated information actually is consciousness — that there's an identity between the two.", [22] and has criticized the panpsychist extrapolations of the theory. [23]

Philosopher David Chalmers, famous for the idea of the hard problem of consciousness, has expressed some enthusiasm about IIT. According to Chalmers, IIT is a development in the right direction, whether or not it is correct. [24]

Max Tegmark has tried to address the problem of the computational complexity behind the calculations. According to Max Tegmark "the integration measure proposed by IIT is computationally infeasible to evaluate for large systems, growing super-exponentially with the system's information content." [25] As a result, Φ can only be approximated in general. However, different ways of approximating Φ provide radically different results. [26] Other works have shown that Φ can be computed in some large mean-field neural network models, although some assumptions of the theory have to be revised to capture phase transitions in these large systems. [27] [28]

In 2019, the Templeton Foundation announced funding in excess of $6,000,000 to test opposing empirical predictions of IIT and a rival theory (Global Neuronal Workspace Theory, GNWT). [29] [30] The originators of both theories signed off on experimental protocols and data analyses as well as the exact conditions that satisfy if their championed theory correctly predicted the outcome or not. [31] [32] Initial results were revealed in June 2023. [33] None of GNWT's predictions passed what was agreed upon pre-registration while two out of three of IIT's predictions passed that threshold. [34]

Criticism

Influential philosopher John Searle has given a critique of theory saying "The theory implies panpsychism" and "The problem with panpsychism is not that it is false; it does not get up to the level of being false. It is strictly speaking meaningless because no clear notion has been given to the claim." [35] However, whether or not a theory has panpsychist implications (that all or most of what exists physically must be, be part of something that is, or be composed of parts that are, conscious) has no bearing on the scientific validity of the theory. Searle's take has also been countered by other philosophers, for misunderstanding and misrepresenting a theory that is actually resonant with his own ideas. [36]

Theoretical computer scientist Scott Aaronson has criticized IIT by demonstrating through its own formulation that an inactive series of logic gates, arranged in the correct way, would not only be conscious but be "unboundedly more conscious than humans are." [37] Tononi himself agrees with the assessment and argues that according to IIT, an even simpler arrangement of inactive logic gates, if large enough, would also be conscious. However he further argues that this is a strength of IIT rather than a weakness, because that's exactly the sort of cytoarchitecture followed by large portions of the cerebral cortex, [38] [39] specially at the back of the brain, [2] which is the most likely neuroanatomical correlate of consciousness according to some reviews. [40]

Philosopher Tim Bayne has criticized the axiomatic foundations of the theory. [41] He concludes that "the so-called 'axioms' that Tononi et al. appeal to fail to qualify as genuine axioms".

IIT as a scientific theory of consciousness has been criticized in the scientific literature as only able to be "either false or unscientific" by its own definitions. [42] IIT has also been denounced by other members of the consciousness field as requiring "an unscientific leap of faith", but it is not clear that this is in fact the case if the theory is properly understood. [43] The theory has also been derided for failing to answer the basic questions required of a theory of consciousness. Philosopher Adam Pautz says "As long as proponents of IIT do not address these questions, they have not put a clear theory on the table that can be evaluated as true or false." [44] Neuroscientist Michael Graziano, proponent of the competing attention schema theory, rejects IIT as pseudoscience. He claims IIT is a "magicalist theory" that has "no chance of scientific success or understanding". [45] Similarly, IIT was criticized that its claims are "not scientifically established or testable at the moment". [46]

However, while it is true that the complete analysis suggested by IIT cannot be completed at the moment for human brains, IIT has already been applied to models of visual cortex to explain why visual space feels the way it does. [2]

Neuroscientists Björn Merker, David Rudrauf and Philosopher Kenneth Williford co-authored a paper criticizing IIT on several grounds. Firstly, by not demonstrating that all members of systems which do in fact combine integration and differentiation in the formal IIT sense are conscious, systems which demonstrate high levels of integration and differentiation of information might provide the necessary conditions for consciousness but those combinations of attributes do not amount to the conditions for consciousness. Secondly that the measure, Φ, reflects efficiency of global information transfer rather than level of consciousness, and that the correlation of Φ with level of consciousness through different states of wakefulness (e.g. awake, dreaming and dreamless sleep, anesthesia, seizures and coma) actually reflect the level of efficient network interactions performed for cortical engagement. Hence Φ reflects network efficiency rather than consciousness, which would be one of the functions served by cortical network efficiency. [47]

A letter published on 15 September 2023 in the preprint repository PsyArXiv and signed by 124 scholars asserted that until IIT is empirically testable, it should be labeled pseudoscience. [48] A number of researchers defended the theory in response. [6] Regarding this letter, IIT, and what he considers a similarly unscientific theory, Assembly theory (AT), University of Cambridge and University of Oxford computer scientist Hector Zenil made criticisms based on the lack of correspondence of the methods and theory in some of the IIT research papers and the media frenzy. [49] Zenil criticized both the shallowness and misleading nature of the media coverage, including in apparently respected journals such as Nature and Science . He also criticized testing methods and evidence used by IIT proponents, noting that one test amounted to simply applying LZW compression to measure entropy rather than to indicate consciousness as proponents claimed. An anonymized public survey invited all authors from peer-reviewed papers published between 2013 and 2023 found by a query of Web of Science using "consciousness AND theor*". From the total 60 respondents, 31% partially agreed with the letter, 8% "fully" agreed and 20% did "not at all" agree with the letter. [50]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Consciousness</span> Awareness of existence

Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of internal and external existence. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate by philosophers, scientists, and theologians. Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied or even considered consciousness. In some explanations, it is synonymous with the mind, and at other times, an aspect of it. In the past, it was one's "inner life", the world of introspection, of private thought, imagination, and volition. Today, it often includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling, or perception. It may be awareness, awareness of awareness, metacognition, or self-awareness, either continuously changing or not. The disparate range of research, notions and speculations raises a curiosity about whether the right questions are being asked.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Computational biology</span> Branch of biology

Computational biology refers to the use of data analysis, mathematical modeling and computational simulations to understand biological systems and relationships. An intersection of computer science, biology, and big data, the field also has foundations in applied mathematics, chemistry, and genetics. It differs from biological computing, a subfield of computer science and engineering which uses bioengineering to build computers.

<i>Consciousness Explained</i> 1991 book by Daniel Dennett

Consciousness Explained is a 1991 book by the American philosopher Daniel Dennett, in which the author offers an account of how consciousness arises from interaction of physical and cognitive processes in the brain. Dennett describes consciousness as an account of the various calculations occurring in the brain at close to the same time. He compares consciousness to an academic paper that is being developed or edited in the hands of multiple people at one time, the "multiple drafts" theory of consciousness. In this analogy, "the paper" exists even though there is no single, unified paper. When people report on their inner experiences, Dennett considers their reports to be more like theorizing than like describing. These reports may be informative, he says, but a psychologist is not to take them at face value. Dennett describes several phenomena that show that perception is more limited and less reliable than we perceive it to be.

Phi is the 21st letter of the Greek alphabet.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panpsychism</span> View that mind is a fundamental feature of reality

In the philosophy of mind, panpsychism is the view that the mind or a mind-like aspect is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of reality. It is also described as a theory that "the mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe". It is one of the oldest philosophical theories, and has been ascribed to philosophers including Thales, Plato, Spinoza, Leibniz, William James, Alfred North Whitehead, Bertrand Russell, and Galen Strawson. In the 19th century, panpsychism was the default philosophy of mind in Western thought, but it saw a decline in the mid-20th century with the rise of logical positivism. Recent interest in the hard problem of consciousness, and developments in the fields of neuroscience, psychology, and quantum mechanics have revived interest in panpsychism in the 21st century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hard problem of consciousness</span> Philosophical concept

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christof Koch</span> German-American neurophysiologist (born 1956)

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giulio Tononi</span> Italian neuroscientist, psychiatrist, and professor (born 1960)

Giulio Tononi is a neuroscientist and psychiatrist who holds the David P. White Chair in Sleep Medicine, as well as a Distinguished Chair in Consciousness Science, at the University of Wisconsin. He is best known for his Integrated Information Theory (IIT), a mathematical theory of consciousness, which he has proposed since 2004.

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The Dehaene–Changeux model (DCM), also known as the global neuronal workspace, or global cognitive workspace model, is a part of Bernard Baars's global workspace model for consciousness.

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  40. ↑ Boly, Melanie; Massimini, Marcello; Tsuchiya, Naotsugu; Postle, Bradley R.; Koch, Christof; Tononi, Giulio (4 October 2017). "Are the Neural Correlates of Consciousness in the Front or in the Back of the Cerebral Cortex? Clinical and Neuroimaging Evidence". Journal of Neuroscience. 37 (40): 9603–9613. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3218-16.2017. ISSN   0270-6474. PMC   5628406 . PMID   28978697. S2CID   41370141.
  41. ↑ Bayne, Tim (2018). "On the axiomatic foundations of the integrated information theory of consciousness". Neuroscience of Consciousness. 2018 (1): niy007. doi: 10.1093/nc/niy007 . PMC   6030813 . PMID   30042860.
  42. ↑ Doerig, Adrian; Schruger, Aaron; Hess, Kathryn; Herzog, Michael (2019). "The unfolding argument: Why IIT and other causal structure theories cannot explain consciousness". Consciousness and Cognition. 72: 49–59. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.04.002 . PMID   31078047.
  43. ↑ Lau, Hakwan; Michel, Matthias (2019). "On the dangers of conflating strong and weak versions of a theory of consciousness". PsyArXiv. doi:10.31234/osf.io/hjp3s. S2CID   203047817.
  44. ↑ Pautz, Adam (2019). "What is Integrated Information Theory?: A Catalogue of Questions". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 26` (1): 188–215.
  45. ↑ Jarrett, Christian (5 April 2020). "Consciousness: how can we solve the greatest mystery in science?". BBC Science Focus Magazine. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  46. ↑ Lau, Hakwan (28 May 2020). "Open letter to NIH on Neuroethics Roadmap (BRAIN initiative) 2019". In Consciousness We Trust..
  47. ↑ Merker, Björn (19 May 2021). "The Integrated Information Theory of consciousness: A case of mistaken identity". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 45: e41. doi:10.1017/S0140525X21000881. PMID   34006338.
  48. ↑ Fleming, S. M.; Frith, C.; Goodale, M.; Lau, H.; LeDoux, J. E.; Lee, A. L. F.; et al. (2023). "The Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness as Pseudoscience". PsyArXiv (Preprint). doi: 10.31234/osf.io/zsr78 . Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  49. ↑ Zenil, Hector. "How Some Scientific Journalism is Failing Us, to both Readers & (less self-promotional) Scientists – Medium" . Retrieved 27 September 2023.
  50. ↑ "Do you agree with the open letter titled: "The Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness as Pseudoscience"?". comcensus.org. Retrieved 20 September 2024.

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