Altered state of consciousness

Last updated

An altered state of consciousness (ASC), [1] also called an altered state of mind, altered mental status (AMS) or mind alteration, is any condition which is significantly different from a normal waking state. By 1892, the expression was in use in relation to hypnosis, [2] though there is an ongoing debate as to whether hypnosis is to be identified as an ASC according to its modern definition. The next retrievable instance, by Max Mailhouse from his 1904 presentation to conference, [3] however, is unequivocally identified as such, as it was in relation to epilepsy, and is still used today. In academia, the expression was used as early as 1966 by Arnold M. Ludwig [4] and brought into common usage from 1969 by Charles Tart. [5] [6] It describes induced changes in one's mental state, almost always temporary. A synonymous phrase is "altered state of awareness".

Contents

Definitions

There is no general definition of an altered state of consciousness, as any definitional attempt would first have to rely on a definition of a normal state of consciousness. [7] Attempts to define the term can however be found in philosophy, psychology and neuroscience. There is no final consensus on what the most accurate definition is. [8] The best-established and latest definitions are provided below.

Arnold M. Ludwig attempted a first definition in 1966.

An altered state is any mental state(s), induced by various physiological, psychological, or pharmacological maneuvers or agents, which can be recognized subjectively by the individual himself (or by an objective observer of the individual) as representing a sufficient deviation in subjective experience of psychological functioning from certain general norms for that individual during alert, waking consciousness. [9]

Starting from this, Charles Tart focuses his definition on the subjective experience of a state of consciousness and its deviation from a normal waking state.

Altered states of consciousness are alternate patterns or configurations of experience, which differ qualitatively from a baseline state. [note 1] [10]

Farthing's definition of an altered state of consciousness (ASC) is based on Charles Tart's terminology. Charles Tart described an altered state of consciousness as a profound change in the "overall pattern of subjective experiences". [11] In order to define an ASC, Tart focuses on the importance of subjective experience.

Farthing adds to his definition that an ASC is short-termed or at least reversible and that it might not even be recognized as an ASC at that moment. His definition relies only on subjective experience, leaving aside behavioral changes and physiological response.

An altered state of consciousness (ASC) may be defined as a temporary change in the overall pattern of subjective experience, such that the individual believes that his or her mental functioning is distinctly different from certain general norms for his or her normal waking state of consciousness. (Farthing, 1992, p. 205)

He lists fourteen dimensions of changed subjective experience. To account for an ASC, multiple dimensions need to be altered. [12]

A working definition for empirical research based on these previous definitions was by Schmidt in 2016: [7]

[Translated from German]: As a working definition for neuroscientific research, it might suffice to presume that most people have a strong intuition concerning which variability in their everyday wakeful state feels normal to them. This variability of experience is considered as normal fluctuation, while any state that is experienced to diverge significantly from it can be called an ASC. From an experimental perspective, it is also reasonable to compare ASC conditions to a baseline state – a state subjectively judged as average, or normal. The comparison with a 'normal' baseline requires that the ASC under investigation is of relatively short duration (minutes to hours), which differentiates ASCs from most pathological conditions. Importantly, it has been emphasized that an ASC is not a mere quantitative change in a single cognitive function (e.g. elevated arousal). Instead, it is a multidimensional phenomenon. Thereby, the relative intensity of multiple consciousness aspects constitutes a 'phenomenological pattern' characterizing a particular state. Such 'patterns' have also been referred to as relative changes in the '(basic) dimensions of consciousness'. For empirical research, such patterns correspond to a multivariate combination of independent 'consciousness factors', which can be quantified via questionnaires. The 'phenomenological pattern' results from the factor structure of the applied psychometric assessment, i.e. the individual ratings, or factor scores, of a questionnaire.

History

History of utilization of ASCs

Altered states of consciousness might have been employed by humans as early as 30,000 years ago. [10] Mind-altering plants and/or excessive dancing were used to attain an ecstatic or mystic state. [13] Examples of early religious use of altered states of consciousness are the rites of Dionysos and the Eleusinian Mysteries, [14] as well as yoga and meditation. [10] Followers of various shamanic traditions "enter altered states of consciousness in order to serve their community." [14] Terence McKenna has suggested that the use of psychedelic mushrooms in prehistoric times has led to the "evolution of human language and symbol use". [15] Some theorists propose that mind-altering substances, such as soma, might have pushed the formation of some of the world's main religions. [14] [16]

Meditation in its various forms is being rediscovered by modern psychology because of its therapeutic potential and its ability to "enable the activity of the mind to settle down". [17] In psychotherapy, techniques like hypnosis and meditation support psychological processes. [18]

History of scientific study

Due to the behaviourist paradigm in psychology altered states of consciousness were dismissed as a field of scientific inquiry during the early 20th century. [19] They were pathologized and merely seen as symptoms of intoxication or demonic possession. [20]

Their return into psychology began with Wiliam James' interest into a variety of altered states, such as "mystical experiences and drug-induced states". [8] James' investigations into first-person-subjective-experience contributed to the reconsideration of introspection as a valuable research method in the academic community. [8]

The social change of the turbulent 1960s has decisively led to a change of the scientific perspective to the point that introspection as a scientific method and ASCs as valid realms of experience became more widely accepted. [21] Foundations for the research have been laid out by various scientists such as Abraham Maslow, Walter N. Pahnke, Stanislav Grof and Charles Tart. [22] They focused on seemingly beneficial aspects of ASCs such as their potential to "promote creativity or treat addiction". [9] Rather oppressive states such as dissociation from trauma were neglected.

The findings of the famous Good Friday Experiment by Pahnke suggest that mystical experiences can be triggered by psilocybin. Later investigations by Rick Doblin found that participants valued those experiences as "spiritual high points of their lives". [10]

In the midst of the rise of new-age subculture Stanislav Grof and others formed the new field of transpersonal psychology, which emphasized "the importance of individual human experience, validity of mystical and spiritual experience, interconnectedness of self with others and the world and potential of self-transformation". [23]

Abraham Maslow's research on peak experiences, as moments of "highest happiness and fulfillment", [23] further contributed to the depathologization of altered states.

A first summary of the existing literature was carried out by Charles T. Tart in his book Altered the States of Consciousness, which led to a more common use of the term. [23] Tart coined the key terms discrete [note 2] and baseline states of consciousness and thought about a general classification system for ASCs. [24] He also called for "state specific sciences" [10] in which researchers should do science on ASCs from within such states.

Classification

A simple classification scheme for ASC. Sleep and dream states are distinguished from waking consciousness since they account for substantially different ways of the ability of memory formation and retrieval. Psychiatric diseases that go along with persistent changes of consciousness, like schizophrenia, are covered with the term "pathological conditions". In contrast, the classification scheme includes intended and induced ASCs as well as general fluctuations of neurotransmission, which are reversible and short-termed. One step further the graph suggests splitting induced ASCs in persistent and reversible states. Translated from German Schmidt & Majic. ClassificationOfAlteredStatesOfConsciousness.png
A simple classification scheme for ASC. Sleep and dream states are distinguished from waking consciousness since they account for substantially different ways of the ability of memory formation and retrieval. Psychiatric diseases that go along with persistent changes of consciousness, like schizophrenia, are covered with the term "pathological conditions". In contrast, the classification scheme includes intended and induced ASCs as well as general fluctuations of neurotransmission, which are reversible and short-termed. One step further the graph suggests splitting induced ASCs in persistent and reversible states. Translated from German Schmidt & Majic.

A classification of Altered States of Consciousness is helpful for comparing or differentiating induced ASCs and other variations of consciousness. Various researchers have attempted the classification into a broader framework. The attempts of classification discussed in the following focus on slightly different aspects of ASCs. Several authors suggested classification schemata with regard to the genesis of altered states and with regard to the type of experiences:

A classification with five categories was suggested by Dieter Vaitl [25] to distinguish ASCs according to how they were induced:

Vaitl [26] further suggests four basic aspects of experiences: (1) activation (2) awareness span (3) self-awareness (4) sensory dynamics. Alternatively Roland Fischer [26] suggests a classification along ergotropic (i.e., ecstasy) or trophotropic (i.e., meditation) properties. The work of Adolph Dittrich [26] aimed to empirically determine common underlying dimensions of consciousness alterations induced by different methods, such as drugs or non-pharmacological methods. He suggested three basic dimensions, which were termed: (1) oceanic boundlessness (2) dread of ego dissolution (3) visionary restructuralization. Further, Ken Wilber [10] proposes a multidimensional system and adds that the individual experience of an ASC is shaped by a person's unique psychological development.

Michael Winkelman argues that there are four different "modes of consciousness": (1) the waking mode (2) the deep sleep mode (3) the REM sleep / dreaming mode (4) the integrative mode. [27] Within this framework, many ASCs (psychedelics, hypnosis, meditation, etc.) are defined as belonging to the integrative mode.

Induction methods

Pharmacological

An altered state of consciousness may be defined as a short-term change in the general configuration of one's individual experience, such that the rational functioning is clearly altered from one's usual state of consciousness. [28] There are many ways that one's consciousness can be altered, such as by using psychoactive drugs, which are defined as chemical substances that pass through the blood-brain barrier and disturb brain function, causing changes in awareness, attitude, consciousness, and behavior. [28]

Cannabis is a psychoactive drug that is known to alter the state of consciousness. Cannabis alters mental activity, memory, and pain perception. One who is under the influence of cannabis may experience degrees of paranoia, increased sensitivity, and delayed reactions not normal for their usual conscious state. A 2009 review of anxiety and cannabis studies concluded that "frequent cannabis users appear to have higher levels of anxiety than non-users," and that "a considerable number of subjects developed anxiety disorders before the first symptoms of cannabis dependence." That led researchers to believe that anxiety-prone people tend to use cannabis as a self-prescribed anxiety medicine, opposing the idea that cannabis is what's causing the anxiety. [29]

MDMA (ecstasy) is a drug that also alters one's state of consciousness. The state of consciousness brought about by MDMA ingestion includes a rise in positive feelings and a reduction in negative feelings (Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. 2005). Users' emotions are increased and inhibitions lowered, often accompanied by a sensation of intimacy or connection with other people.

Opioids are a class of drugs that alter consciousness. Examples of opioids include heroin, morphine, hydrocodone, and oxycodone. Opioids produce analgesia and often feelings of euphoria in users. Opioid abuse may result in decreased production of endorphins in the brain, natural pain relievers whose effects may be heightened by drugs. [30]

Cocaine alters one's state of consciousness. Cocaine affects the neurotransmitters that nerves use to communicate with each other. Cocaine inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and other neurotransmitters in the synapse, resulting in an altered state of consciousness or a "high" (Aldridge, D., & Fachner, J. ö. 2005).

Lysergic acid diethylamide, or LSD, activates serotonin receptors (the amine transmitter of nerve urges) in brain matter. LSD acts on certain serotonin receptors, and its effects are most prominent in the cerebral cortex, an area involved in attitude, thought, and insight, which obtains sensory signs from all parts of the body. LSD's main effects are emotional and psychological. The ingester's feelings may alter quickly through a range from fear to ecstasy (Humphrey, N. 2001). This may cause one to experience many levels of altered consciousness. It has also been shown to induce ego death (or ego dissolution). [31] [32]

Alcohol alters consciousness by shifting levels of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" cell (often another neuron). Neurotransmitters can cause inhibitory or excitatory effects on the "target" cell they are affecting. [33] Alcohol increases the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-Aminobutyric acid) in the brain. GABA causes slow actions and inaudible verbal communication that often occur in alcoholics. [30] Alcohol also decreases the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Suppressing this stimulant results in a similar type of physiological slowdown. In addition to increasing the GABA and decreasing the glutamate in the brain, alcohol increases the amount of the chemical dopamine in the brain, which is one of the addictive causes of alcoholism.

Non-pharmacological

Altered states of consciousness may also be induced by:[ original research? ]

Emotions influence behavior that alters the state of consciousness. Emotions can be influenced by various stimuli. [34]

Pathologies/other

Pathological or accidental induction may refer to unforeseen events or illnesses. According to Jeffrey R. Avner, professor of clinical pediatrics, a crucial element to understanding accidental and pathological causes of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) is that it begins with reduced self-awareness followed by reduced awareness in the environment (2006). Those with personal experience of conditions such as Depersonalisation often cite the opposite, that it is an increased awareness of the environment and the self that results in altered states of consciousness. [35] When the reduction of self-awareness and environmental awareness take effect, they produce altered states of consciousness. The specific conditions below provide clarity on the types of conditions compromise accidental and pathological causes.

Traumatic experience

The first condition, traumatic experience, is defined as a lesion caused by an external force (Trauma. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster Dictionary online, 2013). Examples include impact to the brain caused by blunt force (i.e., a car accident). The reason a traumatic experience causes altered states of consciousness is that it changes how the brain works. The external impact diverts the blood flow from the front of the brain to other areas. The front of the brain is known as the prefrontal cortex responsible for analytical thought (Kunsman, 2012). When the damage becomes uncontrollable, the patient experiences changes in behavior and impaired self-awareness. This is exactly when an altered state of consciousness is experienced. [36]

Epilepsy

Another common cause of ASCs is epilepsy. According to Medlineplus [37] epilepsy is as a brain disorder that causes seizures (2013). During the seizure, the patient will experience hallucinations and loss of mental control, [38] causing temporary dissociation from reality. A study that was conducted with six epileptic patients and used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) detected how the patients did indeed experience hallucinations while a seizure is occurring. [39] This not only altered the patient's behavioral pattern but also made them dissociate from reality during that particular time frame.

Oxygen deficiency

Oxygen deficiency impacts the brain, which is why ASCs can occur when there is oxygen deprivation in an environment.

Infections

In addition to oxygen deprivation or deficiency, infections are a common pathological cause of ASC. A prime example of an infection is meningitis. The medical website WEBMD [40] states that meningitis is an infection that causes the coverings of the brain to swell. This particular infection occurs in children and young adults. This infection is primarily viral. Viral meningitis causes ASC and its symptoms include fevers and seizures (2010). The Impairment becomes visible the moment seizures begin to occur, this is when the patient enters the altered state of consciousness.

Sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation is also associated with ASCs, and can provoke seizures due to fatigue. Sleep deprivation can be chronic or short-term depending on the severity of the patient's condition. Many patients report hallucinations because sleep deprivation impacts the brain. An MRI study conducted at Harvard Medical School in 2007 found that a sleep-deprived brain was not capable of being in control of its sensorimotor functions, [41] leading to impaired self-awareness. Patients were also much clumsier than if they had not been experiencing sleep deprivation.

Fasting

Fasting is another form of deprivation. Fasting can be deliberate, including for religious reasons or from psychological conditions such as anorexia. [42] Fasting refers to the ability to willingly refrain from food and possibly drinks as well. The dissociation caused by fasting is not only life-threatening but it is the reason why extended fasting periods can lead to ASC. Thus, the temporary dissociation from reality allows fasting to fall into the category of an ASC following the definition provided by Avner (2006). [43]

Psychosis

Another pathological cause is psychosis, otherwise known as a psychotic episode. Psychotic episodes often include delusions, paranoia, derealization, depersonalization, and hallucinations (Revonsuo et al., 2008). Studies have not been able to clearly identify when a person is reaching a higher level of risk for a psychotic episode (Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., & Schultze-Lutter, F., 2013), [44] but the earlier people are treated for psychosis the more likely they are to avoid the devastating consequences which could lead to a psychotic disorder (Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., & Schultze-Lutter, F., 2013). [44] Unfortunately, there are very few studies which have thoroughly investigated psychotic episodes, and the ability to predict this disorder remains unclear. (Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., & Schultze-Lutter, F., 2013). [44]

Reviewing the previous conditions for accidental and pathological causes, we can come to understand that all of these accidental or pathological causes share the component of reduced self-awareness. Therefore, ASCs cannot only be caused naturally but they can be induced intentionally with methods including hypnosis meditation, amongst others. There are also ASCs which are caused by less recreational purposes; people who utilize illegal substances, or heavy dosages of medications, as well as large amounts of alcohol, can indeed comply with the definition of an ASC (Revonsuo et al., 2008).

Neurobiological models of altered state experiences

Entropic brain hypothesis

The entropic brain hypothesis by Robin Carhart-Harris in 2014 [45] [46] [47] is a theory informed by neuroimaging research that uses the hallucinogen-induced neurological state to make inferences about other states of consciousness. The expression "entropy" is applied here in the context of states of consciousness and their associated neurodynamics, where high entropy means a high level of disorder. The theory proposes a general distinction between two fundamentally different modes of cognition, referred to as primary and secondary consciousness.

Primary consciousness is associated with unconstrained cognition and less ordered (higher-entropy) neurodynamics that preceded the development of modern, normal waking consciousness in adults. Examples include the rapid eye movement sleep (REM),transcendental state between REM sleep and sensory awareness(the psychedelic state), or the onset phase of psychosis. Secondary consciousness is associated with constrained cognition and more ordered neurodynamics. Examples include normal waking consciousness, the anesthetized or the depressed state.

The theory further proposes that via pharmacological induction of psychedelic substances psilocybin, the brain is able to enter into the primary state of consciousness (the psychedelic state) from normal waking consciousness. This "phase transition" between these two fundamentally different poles of consciousness is facilitated by a collapse of the normally highly organized activity within the default mode network (DMN) and a decoupling between the DMN and the medial temporal lobes (MTLs), which are normally significantly coupled. [47] The DMN is closely associated with higher-order cognitive functions such as supporting the neurological basis for the self (e.g. self-reflection, subjectivity, introspection), thinking about others (e.g. theory of mind), remembering the past and thinking about the future (e.g. episodic memory). Task-positive networks are associated with the inverse of these things e.g., focus on and scrutiny of the external world.

The entropic brain hypothesis emphasizes the great research potential of the psychedelic state of mind for gaining more insight into general human consciousness.

CSTC-loop

Extensive scientific investigation on altered states of consciousness and their relationship to drug interactions with receptors in the brain have been performed. Particularly the study of the neurotransmitter serotonin and the effects of psychedelic drugs on the brain has been intensively researched over the past sixty years. It has been hypothesized that hallucinogens act either as an antagonist or an agonist at 5-HT2A (serotonin-2A) receptors and will elicit a state that shares some common phenomenological features with early acute stages of the group of schizophrenia disorders. [48]

Findings implicate that abnormalities of serotonin function and the serotonergic system could be responsible for psychiatric disorders such as the spectrum of schizophrenia (gating) disorders and therefore, that serotonin agonist or antagonists might be useful in the treatment of disorders such as schizophrenia. To investigate the underlying causative neurotransmitter mechanisms of this phenomenon, the CSTC (cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical) loop model has been formulated based on empirical neurobiological work. It is indicated that the common hypofrontality (underactivation of frontal brain regions) and cortical activation pattern induced by serotonergic and glutamatergic hallucinogens is due to a common disruption of thalamic gating of sensory and cognitive information. The CSTC feedback loop plays a major role in gating or filtering out external and internal information to the cortex. Thereby it influences the regulation of the level of awareness and attention.

Disruption of the CSTC loop system is proposed to significantly influence information processing, for instance the ability to screen out, inhibit, filter, or gate extraneous stimuli and to direct selective attention to salient features of the environment. Failures of these attentional gating mechanisms might overload patients with the excessive processing of both sensory and cognitive stimuli, which could lead to a breakdown of cognitive integrity and difficulty in distinguishing self from non-self and failure to integrate an overwhelming flood of information. Descriptive elaboration of the mentioned effects can be found in the literature on schizophrenia as well as in descriptions of hallucinogenic drug action.

Despite strong evidence linking serotonin and psychosis, novel research indicates that some behavioral effects of drugs such as psilocybin appear to be independent of the classical 5-HT2A receptor-agonist actions, implying that the model described here is not the only underlying framework at play. Interdisciplinary research enterprises have set out to study the convergence of serotonergic and glutamatergic models of psychosis and dynamic neurotransmitter interactions, derived from the study of hallucinogenic drugs, in the future. [48]

Synthetic surprise

Synthetic surprise is a theoretical concept explaining the altered states of consciousness induced by psychedelic substances like LSD and psilocybin. Central to this concept is the activation of the 5-HT2A receptor by psychedelics. The hypothesis suggests that these substances induce a state of synthetic surprise through the selective activation of the 5-HT receptors system, based on recent insights supporting a role of 5-HT in signaling surprise. This state aligns with the 'prediction error' in the predictive coding framework of brain function, where there's a discrepancy between the brain's expectations and the actual sensory input. The precision of this sensory data is crucial in modifying the brain's pre-existing beliefs or 'priors'. Under the influence of psychedelics, the interplay between top-down expectations and bottom-up sensory information is altered, leading to the characteristic changes in consciousness. Hallucinations in this context can be explained by the previously proposed "Strong priors" theory. [49] This understanding of synthetic surprise has significant implications for the clinical use of psychedelic substances. The ability of psychedelics to induce surprise is proposed to be central to their therapeutic potential, especially in disrupting maladaptive cognitive and perceptual patterns. [50]

See also

Notes

  1. "Ordinary waking state is qualitatively distinct from dreaming, for instance, or from being under the influence of a significant amount of alcohol."(Garcia-Romeau, Tart, 2013)
  2. "a unique, dynamic pattern or configuration of psychological structures" (Tart,1969). Classic examples of discrete states of consciousness include waking, dreaming, deep sleep, intoxication, hypnosis, and successfully induced meditative states, to name just a few.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Consciousness</span> Awareness of existence

Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of internal and external existence. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate by philosophers, scientists, and theologians. Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied or even considered consciousness. In some explanations, it is synonymous with the mind, and at other times, an aspect of mind. In the past, it was one's "inner life", the world of introspection, of private thought, imagination and volition. Today, it often includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling or perception. It may be awareness, awareness of awareness, metacognition, or self-awareness either continuously changing or not. The disparate range of research, notions and speculations raises a curiosity about whether the right questions are being asked.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychedelic drug</span> Hallucinogenic class of psychoactive drug

Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states and a perceived "expansion of consciousness". Also referred to as classic hallucinogens or serotonergic hallucinogens, the term psychedelic is sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens, such as those which are atypical or adjacent to psychedelia like salvia and MDMA, respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Out-of-body experience</span> Phenomenon in which the soul (astral body) is said to exit the physical body

An out-of-body experience is a phenomenon in which a person perceives the world as if from a location outside their physical body. An OBE is a form of autoscopy, although this term is more commonly used to refer to the pathological condition of seeing a second self, or doppelgänger.

Transpersonal psychology, or spiritual psychology, is an area of psychology that seeks to integrate the spiritual and transcendent aspects of the human experience within the framework of modern psychology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stanislav Grof</span> American psychiatrist

Stanislav "Stan" Grof is an American psychiatrist. Grof is one of the principal developers of transpersonal psychology and research into the use of non-ordinary states of consciousness for purposes of psychological healing, deep self-exploration, and obtaining growth and insights into the human psyche.

The neuroscience of religion, also known as neurotheology and as spiritual neuroscience, attempts to explain religious experience and behaviour in neuroscientific terms. It is the study of correlations of neural phenomena with subjective experiences of spirituality and hypotheses to explain these phenomena. This contrasts with the psychology of religion which studies mental, rather than neural states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychonautics</span> Methodology for describing and explaining the subjective effects of altered states of consciousness

Psychonautics refers both to a methodology for describing and explaining the subjective effects of altered states of consciousness, including those induced by meditation or mind-altering substances, and to a research cabal in which the researcher voluntarily immerses themselves into an altered mental state in order to explore the accompanying experiences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Set and setting</span> Mindset and location of a drug experience

Set and setting, when referring to a psychedelic drug experience or the use of other psychoactive substances, means one's mindset and the physical and social environment in which the user has the experience. Set and setting are factors that can condition the effects of psychoactive substances: "Set" refers to the mental state a person brings to the experience, like thoughts, mood and expectations; "setting" to the physical and social environment. This is especially relevant for psychedelic experiences in either a therapeutic or recreational context.

A psychedelic experience is a temporary altered state of consciousness induced by the consumption of a psychedelic substance. For example, an acid trip is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of LSD, while a mushroom trip is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of psilocybin. Psychedelic experiences feature alterations in normal perception such as visual distortions and a subjective loss of self-identity, sometimes interpreted as mystical experiences. Psychedelic experiences lack predictability, as they can range from being highly pleasurable to frightening. The outcome of a psychedelic experience is heavily influenced by the person's mood, personality, expectations, and environment.

A religious experience is a subjective experience which is interpreted within a religious framework. The concept originated in the 19th century, as a defense against the growing rationalism of Western society. William James popularised the concept. In some religions, this is said to sometimes result in unverified personal gnosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles Tart</span> American psychologist and parapsychologist

Charles T. Tart is an American psychologist and parapsychologist known for his psychological work on the nature of consciousness, as one of the founders of the field of transpersonal psychology, and for his research in parapsychology.

The transpersonal is a term used by different schools of philosophy and psychology in order to describe experiences and worldviews that extend beyond the personal level of the psyche, and beyond mundane worldly events.

Neuropsychopharmacology, an interdisciplinary science related to psychopharmacology and fundamental neuroscience, is the study of the neural mechanisms that drugs act upon to influence behavior. It entails research of mechanisms of neuropathology, pharmacodynamics, psychiatric illness, and states of consciousness. These studies are instigated at the detailed level involving neurotransmission/receptor activity, bio-chemical processes, and neural circuitry. Neuropsychopharmacology supersedes psychopharmacology in the areas of "how" and "why", and additionally addresses other issues of brain function. Accordingly, the clinical aspect of the field includes psychiatric (psychoactive) as well as neurologic (non-psychoactive) pharmacology-based treatments. Developments in neuropsychopharmacology may directly impact the studies of anxiety disorders, affective disorders, psychotic disorders, degenerative disorders, eating behavior, and sleep behavior.

<i>Understanding Consciousness</i> Book by Max Velmans

Understanding Consciousness (2000) is a book by Max Velmans, Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Goldsmiths, University of London, which combines an account of scientific studies of consciousness with a perspective from the philosophy of mind. The book was shortlisted for the British Psychological Society book of the year award in 2001 and 2002. Philip Pullman called it "one of the clearest and most elegant accounts" he had seen of the topic.

Hallucinogens are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized as either being psychedelics, dissociatives, or deliriants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Near-death experience</span> Personal experiences associated with death or impending death

A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death, which researchers describe as having similar characteristics. When positive, which the great majority are, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detachment from the body, feelings of levitation, total serenity, security, warmth, joy, the experience of absolute dissolution, review of major life events, the presence of a light, and seeing dead relatives. When negative, such experiences may include sensations of anguish, distress, a void, devastation, and seeing hellish imagery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trance</span> Abnormal state of wakefulness or altered state of consciousness

Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli or is selectively responsive in following the directions of the person who has induced the trance. Trance states may occur involuntarily and unbidden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychoactive drug</span> Chemical substance that alters nervous system function

A psychoactive drug, mind-altering drug, or consciousness-altering drug is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior. The term psychotropic drug is often used interchangeably, while some sources present narrower definitions. These substances may be used medically; recreationally; to purposefully improve performance or alter one's consciousness; as entheogens for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes; or for research, including psychedelic therapy. Some categories of psychoactive drugs, which have therapeutic value, are prescribed by physicians and other healthcare practitioners. Examples include anesthetics, analgesics, anticonvulsant and antiparkinsonian drugs as well as medications used to treat neuropsychiatric disorders, such as antidepressants, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, and stimulant medications. Some psychoactive substances may be used in the detoxification and rehabilitation programs for persons dependent on or addicted to other psychoactive drugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Consciousness after death</span> Common metaphysical theme in society and culture

Consciousness after death is a common theme in society and culture, and the belief in some form of life after death is a feature of many religions. However, scientific research has established that the physiological functioning of the brain, the cessation of which defines brain death, is closely connected to mental states.

Theories of holographic consciousness postulate that consciousness has structural and functional similarities to a hologram, in that the information needed to model the whole is contained within each constituent component.

References

  1. Bundzen PV, Korotkov KG, Unestahl LE (April 2002). "Altered states of consciousness: review of experimental data obtained with a multiple techniques approach". J Altern Complement Med. 8 (2): 153–65. doi:10.1089/107555302317371442. PMID   12006123.
  2. "Aberdeen Evening Express". An Aberdeen Doctor on Hypnotism. [Occurrence 3/4 down page, 3rd column, adjacent to article spacing rule in 2nd column.] December 14, 1892. The faculties of reason and judgement, the elaborate and regulative faculties, in this altered state of consciousness, are obviously dependent on sense perceptions, and vary accordingly as they do.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  3. Mailhouse M (1905). The Duties of the State with Reference to Epileptics. Bulletin of State Institutions [under the Board of Control], Volume 7. p. 83. Read at the 4th Annual Meeting of the Assoc. for the Study of Epilepsy and the care and treatment of Epileptics, 22 Nov 1904: 'That is to say the psyche may take on an independent action entirely foreign to the nature and personality of the epileptic when free from an attack, and this altered state of consciousness may lead to acts more or less harmful to patient or bystander'
  4. Ludwig AM (September 1966). "Altered States of Consciousness (presentation to symposium on Possession States in Primitive People)". Archives of General Psychiatry . 15 (3): 225–34. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1966.01730150001001. PMID   5330058.
  5. Tart CT (1969). Altered States of Consciousness: A Book of Readings. New York: Wiley. ISBN   0-471-84560-4.
  6. Tart CT (2001). States of Consciousness. Backinprint.com. ISBN   0-595-15196-5.
  7. 1 2 3 Schmidt T, Majic T (2016). "Empirische Untersuchung Veränderter Bewusstseinszustände". Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen. pp. 4–6. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4_65-1. ISBN   978-3-642-55214-4.
  8. 1 2 3 Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 123.
  9. 1 2 Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 129.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 126.
  11. Farthing 1992, p. 202
  12. Farthing 1992, pp. 207-212
  13. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 123–134.
  14. 1 2 3 Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 125.
  15. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 124.
  16. Cardeña E, Winkelman MJ, eds. (2011). Altering Consciousness (2 volumes): Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Santa Barbara: Praeger. ISBN   978-0313383083.
  17. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 126, 132.
  18. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 131–132.
  19. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 127.
  20. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 126, 128.
  21. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 121, 126, 128.
  22. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 127–130.
  23. 1 2 3 Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 128.
  24. Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 123, 128.
  25. Vaitl D (2012). Veränderte Bewusstseinszustände: Grundlagen - Techniken - Phänomenologie. Schattauer. p. 14.
  26. 1 2 3 Garcia-Romeu A, Tart CT (2013). The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Transpersonal Psychology (First ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 134.
  27. Winkelman M, Fortier M (2019). "The evolutionary neuroanthropology of consciousness: Exploring the diversity of conscious states across cultures. An interview with Michael Winkelman". ALIUS Bulletin. 3: 45–97. doi:10.34700/krg3-zk35.
  28. 1 2 Revonsuo A, Kallio S, Sikka P (April 2009). "What is an altered state of consciousness?". Philosophical Psychology. 22 (2): 187–204. doi:10.1080/09515080902802850. ISSN   0951-5089. S2CID   55819447.
  29. Frazier, B., "Cannabis", 2010 North American Medical Dictionary
  30. 1 2 Berridge V (2001). "Altered States: Opium and Tobacco Compared". Social Research. 68 (3): 655–675. JSTOR   40971905. PMID   17654813.
  31. Nour MM, Evans L, Nutt D, Carhart-Harris RL (2016). "Ego-Dissolution and Psychedelics: Validation of the Ego-Dissolution Inventory (EDI)". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 10: 269. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00269 . ISSN   1662-5161. PMC   4906025 . PMID   27378878.
  32. Mason NL, Kuypers KP, Müller F, Reckweg J, Tse DH, Toennes SW, Hutten NR, Jansen JF, Stiers P, Feilding A, Ramaekers JG (November 2020). "Me, myself, bye: regional alterations in glutamate and the experience of ego dissolution with psilocybin". Neuropsychopharmacology. 45 (12): 2003–2011. doi:10.1038/s41386-020-0718-8. ISSN   1740-634X. PMC   7547711 . PMID   32446245.
  33. "Neurotransmitter" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  34. Altarriba J (2012). "Emotion and Mood: Over 120 Years of Contemplation and Exploration in The American Journal of Psychology". The American Journal of Psychology. 125 (4): 409–22. doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.125.4.0409. PMID   23350300.
  35. Avner JR (1 September 2006). "Altered States of Consciousness". Pediatrics in Review. 27 (9): 331–338. doi:10.1542/pir.27-9-331. PMID   16950938. S2CID   2988071.
  36. Spikman JM, Milders MV, Visser-Keizer AC, Westerhof-Evers HJ, Herben-Dekker M, van der Naalt J, Fridman EA (12 June 2013). "Deficits in Facial Emotion Recognition Indicate Behavioral Changes and Impaired Self-Awareness after Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury". PLOS ONE. 8 (6): e65581. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...865581S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065581 . PMC   3680484 . PMID   23776505.
  37. "Epilepsy" . Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  38. Revonsuo A, Kallio S, Sikka P (April 2009). "What is an altered state of consciousness?". Philosophical Psychology. 22 (2): 187–204. doi:10.1080/09515080902802850. S2CID   55819447.
  39. Korsnes MS, Hugdahl K, Nygård M, Bjørnaes H (April 2010). "An fMRI study of auditory hallucinations in patients with epilepsy". Epilepsia. 51 (4): 610–617. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2009.02338.x . PMID   19817808.
  40. "Meningitis - Topic Overview". 8 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  41. "Harvard Heart Letter". Harvard Health Publications. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  42. Lewiński A, Nogal P (2008). "Jadłowstręt psychiczny (anorexia nervosa)" [Anorexia nervosa]. Endokrynologia Polska (in Polish). 59 (2): 148–155. PMID   18465690.
  43. Avner JR (2006-09-01). "Altered States of Consciousness". Pediatrics in Review. 27 (9): 331–338. doi:10.1542/pir.27-9-331. ISSN   0191-9601. PMID   16950938. S2CID   2988071.
  44. 1 2 3 Schimmelmann, B., Walger, P., Schultze-Lutter, F. (2013). "The Significance of At-Risk Symptoms for Psychosis in Children and Adolescents". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 58 (1): 32–40. doi: 10.1177/070674371305800107 . PMID   23327754. S2CID   22157909.
  45. Carhart-Harris RL, Friston KJ, Barker EL (20 June 2019). "REBUS and the Anarchic Brain: Toward a Unified Model of the Brain Action of Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 71 (3): 316–344. doi:10.1124/pr.118.017160. PMC   6588209 . PMID   31221820.
  46. Carhart-Harris RL (November 2018). "The entropic brain – revisited". Neuropharmacology. 142: 167–178. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.03.010. PMID   29548884. S2CID   4483591.
  47. 1 2 Robin L. Carhart-Harris (2014). "The entropic brain: A theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs". Front Hum Neurosci. 8: 20. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020 . PMC   3909994 . PMID   24550805.
  48. 1 2 Franz X. Vollenweider (2008). "Serotonin research: contributions to understanding psychoses". Trends Pharmacol Sci. 29 (9): 445–453. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2008.06.006. PMID   19086254.
  49. Corlett PR, Horga G, Fletcher PC, Alderson-Day B, Schmack K, Powers AR (February 2019). "Hallucinations and Strong Priors". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 23 (2): 114–127. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2018.12.001. PMC   6368358 . PMID   30583945.
  50. De Filippo R, Schmitz D (2024-02-01). "Synthetic surprise as the foundation of the psychedelic experience". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 157: 105538. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105538 . ISSN   0149-7634. PMC   10839673 . PMID   38220035.

Sources

Further reading