Locked-in syndrome (LIS), also known as pseudocoma, is a condition in which a patient is aware but cannot move or communicate verbally due to complete paralysis of nearly all voluntary muscles in their body except for vertical eye movements and blinking.[3] This is due to quadriplegia and bulbar palsy. The individual is conscious and sufficiently intact cognitively to be able to communicate with eye movements.[4]Electroencephalography results are normal in locked-in syndrome as these individuals have retained brain activity such as sleep-wake cycles and attention that is detectable. Fred Plum and Jerome B. Posner coined the term for this disorder in 1966.[5][6]
Locked-in syndrome can be separated into different subcategories based on symptom severity.[7] This consists of classic locked-in syndrome, characterized by the inability to move distal limbs and facial muscles, but retained ability to blink and move eyes vertically, with preserved cognition and consciousness. Incomplete locked-in syndrome is less severe as classic locked-in syndrome and shares similar preserved abilities as classic locked-in syndrome, but has the hallmark of additional motor abilities, whether that be in the muscles innervating the limbs or face. Complete locked-in syndrome contains the conserved cognition and consciousness as classic locked-in syndrome, but has additional motor deficits that render the individual unable to move their eyes vertically or blink. Locked-in plus is an additional form distinguished by impairments to cognition and consciousness, but contains damage to similar regions of the brainstem affected by other forms, notably the pons, with the addition of other cortical and subcortical regions.
Signs and symptoms
Locked-in syndrome is usually characterized by loss of limb function and the inability to speak in otherwise cognitively intact individuals. Those with locked-in syndrome may be able to communicate with others through coded messages by blinking or moving their eyes, which are often not affected by the paralysis. Patients who have locked-in syndrome are conscious and aware, with no loss of cognitive function. They can sometimes retain proprioception and sensation throughout their bodies. Some patients may have the ability to move certain facial muscles, and most often some or all of the extraocular muscles. Individuals with the syndrome lack coordination between breathing and voice.[8] This prevents them from producing voluntary sounds, though the vocal cords themselves may not be paralysed.[8]
Individuals with locked-in syndrome also have intact hearing and subsequent language comprehension. However, these patients might have trouble with voluntary breathing and require assistance due to apnea, ataxia, and hyperpnea. This can be coupled with dizziness and vertigo. Locked-in syndrome patients also have been reported to have involuntary movements such as sucking, chewing, swallowing, yawning, and moaning due to lost pyramidal control of motor systems.[9]
In children, the most common cause is a stroke of the ventral pons.
Unlike persistent vegetative state, in which the upper portions of the brain are damaged and the lower portions are spared, locked-in syndrome is essentially the opposite, caused by damage to specific portions of the lower brain and brainstem, with no damage to the upper brain.[citation needed] Injuries to the pons are the most common cause of locked-in syndrome.[11]
Damage to nerve cells, particularly destruction of the myelin sheath, caused by disease or osmotic demyelination syndrome (formerly designated central pontine myelinolysis) secondary to excessively rapid correction of hyponatremia [>1 mEq/L/h])[12]
A stroke or brain hemorrhage, usually of the basilar artery
Locked-in syndrome can be difficult to diagnose. In a 2002 survey of 44 people with LIS, it took almost three months to recognize and diagnose the condition after it had begun.[14] However, it has reported that it can take upwards of four years to receive a diagnosis.[15] Locked-in syndrome may mimic loss of consciousness in patients, or, in the case that respiratory control is lost, may even resemble death. People are also unable to actuate standard motor responses such as withdrawal from pain; as a result, testing often requires making requests of the patient such as blinking or vertical eye movement.[citation needed]
Brain imaging may provide additional indicators of locked-in syndrome, as brain imaging provides clues as to whether or not brain function has been lost. Additionally, an EEG can allow the observation of sleep-wake patterns indicating that the patient is not unconscious but simply unable to move.[16] If no mass or vascular lesion is present on the imaging scan, cerebrospinal fluid examination may be used to reveal an infectious or autoimmune root of the symptoms.[17] Similarly, blood tests can detect fluctuations in sodium concentration, that would be indicative of hyponatremia, as well as glucose levels should be monitored to eliminate the possibility of a hypoglycemic coma.
Neither a standard treatment nor a cure is available. The best course of treatment consists of stabilizing the patient and then correcting the underlying cause of the lesion or damage. Stimulation of muscle reflexes with electrodes (NMES) has been known to help patients regain some muscle function. Other courses of treatment are often symptomatic.[18]Assistive computer interface technologies such as Dasher, combined with eye tracking, may be used to help people with LIS communicate with their environment.[citation needed]
Pulmonary complications are the main cause of death in locked-in syndrome patients, therefore chest physiotherapy like deep breathing exercises, position changes, and postural drainage are of high importance during these acute stages.[19]
Prognosis
It is extremely rare for any significant motor function to return, with the majority of locked-in syndrome patients never regaining motor control. However, some people with the condition continue to live for extended periods of time, reported up to a few decades[20][21] while in exceptional cases, like that of Kerry Pink,[22] Gareth Shepherd,[23][failed verification – see discussion] Jacob Haendel,[24] Kate Allatt,[25] and Jessica Wegbrans,[26] a near-full recovery may be achieved with intensive physical therapy. These substantial recoveries in motor movement are thought to be due to potential reorganization of the descending spinal tract pathways. Of those that see improvements in motor functioning, it is thought to be more likely to occur in nonvascular cases of locked-in syndrome compared to vascular patients, as well as distal motor functions being more likely to recover than other facial muscles.[27][28]
Although depression has been diagnosed in a subset of patients with locked-in syndrome, literature suggests that many patients still report a significantly high quality life over time and that they are happy, with negative respondents having received their diagnosis relatively recently.[29] This content may derive from their retained consciousness that allows the individual to still experience life and participate in activities they enjoy as well as have obligations in their home life. It is true to say that the degree to which a patient can do is dependent on how severe their symptomology is, but many individuals report leaving the house more than once a month, to where there was ultimately no differences in quality of life between a person with locked-in syndrome and a studied healthy control.[30][31]
Research
New brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) may provide future remedies. One effort in 2002 allowed a fully locked-in patient to answer yes-or-no questions.[32][33] In 2006, researchers created and successfully tested a neural interface which allowed someone with locked-in syndrome to operate a web browser using an infared camera, navigating a keyboard through selecting letters by blinking or staring at one for a specific period of time.[34] Some scientists have reported that they have developed a technique that allows locked-in patients to communicate via sniffing with nasal pressure being converted to electrical signals.[35] For the first time in 2020, a 34-year-old German patient, paralyzed since 2015 (later also the eyeballs) managed to communicate through an implant capable of reading brain activity.[36]
Other communication initiatives have involved utilizing salivary pH as a proxy of yes/no answers, such as by using mental manipulation for a patient train themselves to vary their salivary pH with mental food imagery sich as lemon/milk.[37] Pupil dialation of a patient at bedside has also been used to signal responses using mental arithmetic.[38] These options might be especially of use in instances of more severe locked-in syndrome pathology where eye movements are more restricted, or as an immediate precaution that is cost effective before a more personalized brain-computer interface can be developed.
↑ Nordgren RE, Markesbery WR, Fukuda K, Reeves AG (1971). "Seven cases of cerebromedullospinal disconnection: the "locked-in" syndrome". Neurology. 21 (11): 1140–8. doi:10.1212/wnl.21.11.1140. PMID5166219. S2CID32398246.
↑ Flügel KA, Fuchs HH, Druschky KF (1977). "The "locked-in" syndrome: pseudocoma in thrombosis of the basilar artery (author's trans.)". Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift (in German). 102 (13): 465–70. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1104912. PMID844425.
1 2 Fager S, Beukelman D, Karantounis R, Jakobs T (2006). "Use of safe-laser access technology to increase head movements in persons with severe motor impairments: a series of case reports". Augmentative and Alternative Communication. 22 (3): 222–29. doi:10.1080/07434610600650318. PMID17114165. S2CID36840057.
↑ Bruno MA, Schnakers C, Damas F, etal. (October 2009). "Locked-in syndrome in children: report of five cases and review of the literature". Pediatr. Neurol. 41 (4): 237–46. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.05.001. PMID19748042.
↑ Harrison’s principles of internal medicine 21st edition vol 2 page 3332.
↑ Karim AA, Hinterberger T, Richter J, Mellinger J, Neumann N, Flor H, Kübler A, Birbaumer N. "Neural internet: Web surfing with brain potentials for the completely paralyzed". Neurorehabilitation & Neural Repair. 40 (4): 508–515.
Piotr Kniecicki (2014). An Art of Graceful Dying. Lukasz Swiderski ISBN978-0-9928486-0-6 (Autobiography, written with residual wrist movements and specially adapted computer)
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