Emergentism

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Emergentism is the philosophical theory that higher-level properties or phenomena emerge from more basic components, and that these emergent properties are not fully reducible to or predictable from those lower-level parts. A property of a system is said to be emergent if it is a new outcome of some other properties of the system and their interaction, while it is itself different from them. [1] Within the philosophy of science, emergentism is analyzed both as it contrasts with and parallels reductionism. [1] [2] This philosophical theory suggests that higher-level properties and phenomena arise from the interactions and organization of lower-level entities yet are not reducible to these simpler components. It emphasizes the idea that the whole is more than the sum of its parts.

Contents

The formation of complex symmetrical and fractal patterns in snowflakes exemplifies emergence in a physical system. SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg
The formation of complex symmetrical and fractal patterns in snowflakes exemplifies emergence in a physical system.

History

Early concepts of emergence

The concept of emergence can be traced back to ancient philosophical traditions. Aristotle, in particular, suggested that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not, laying an early foundation for emergentist thought. This idea persisted through the ages, influencing various schools of thought. [3]

The term "emergence" was formally introduced in the 19th century by the philosopher George Henry Lewes. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties, where resultant properties could be predicted from the properties of the parts, whereas emergent properties could not. This distinction was crucial in differentiating emergent phenomena from simple aggregative effects. [4]

Development in the 20th century

In the early 20th century, emergentism gained further traction through the works of British emergentists like C.D. Broad and Samuel Alexander. C.D. Broad, in his 1925 book The Mind and Its Place in Nature, argued that mental states were emergent properties of brain processes. [5] Samuel Alexander, in his work Space, Time, and Deity, suggested that emergent qualities like consciousness and life could not be fully explained by the underlying physical processes alone. [6]

These philosophers were reacting against the reductionist view that all phenomena could be fully explained by their constituent parts. They argued that emergent properties such as consciousness have their own causal powers and cannot be reduced to or predicted from their base components. This period also saw the influence of Gestalt psychology, which emphasized that psychological phenomena cannot be understood solely by analyzing their component parts, further supporting emergentist ideas. [3]

Mid to late 20th century advances

During the mid-20th century, emergentism was somewhat overshadowed by the rise of behaviorism and later the cognitive sciences, which often leaned towards more reductionist explanations. However, the concept of emergence found renewed interest towards the late 20th century with the advent of complex systems theory and non-linear dynamics. [4]

In this period, scientists and philosophers began to explore how complex behaviors and properties could arise from relatively simple interactions in systems as diverse as ant colonies, economic markets, and neural networks. This interdisciplinary approach highlighted the ubiquity and importance of emergent phenomena across different domains, from physics to biology to social sciences. [3]

Contemporary developments

In recent years, emergentism has continued to evolve, integrating insights from various scientific fields. For example, in physics, the study of phenomena such as superconductivity and the behavior of complex quantum systems has provided empirical examples of emergent properties. [7] In biology, the study of complex biological networks and the dynamics of ecosystems has further illustrated how emergent properties play a crucial role in natural systems. [8]

The resurgence of interest in artificial intelligence and machine learning has also contributed to contemporary discussions on emergentism. Researchers in these fields are particularly interested in how intelligent behavior and consciousness might emerge from artificial systems, providing new perspectives and challenges for emergentist theories. [9]

Forms

Emergentism can be compatible with physicalism, [10] the theory that the universe is composed exclusively of physical entities, and in particular with the evidence relating changes in the brain with changes in mental functioning.

Some varieties of emergentism are not specifically concerned with the mind–body problem but constitute a theory of the nature of the universe comparable to pantheism. [11] They suggest a hierarchical or layered view of the whole of nature, with the layers arranged in terms of increasing complexity with each requiring its own special science.

Core principles

Emergentism is underpinned by several core principles that define its theoretical framework and distinguish it from other philosophical doctrines such as reductionism and holistic dualism.

Definition and nature of emergence

Emergence refers to the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns, and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems. These emergent properties are not predictable from the properties of the individual components alone. Emergent properties are seen as a result of the interactions and relationships between the components of a system, which produce new behaviors and characteristics that are not present in the isolated parts. This concept is crucial in understanding why certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by analyzing their parts independently. [3]

Types of emergence

Emergentism distinguishes between two main types of emergence: weak and strong. Weak emergence involves properties that can in principle be derived from the interactions of lower-level entities but are not immediately obvious. These properties are emergent in the sense that they are the result of complex interactions but do not involve fundamentally new properties. For instance, the behavior of a computer program can be understood by examining its executable code, but the complexity of the program's behavior may not be immediately apparent from the code alone. [4] Strong emergence involves properties that are fundamentally new and cannot be predicted or explained by the behavior of the lower-level components. Strong emergent properties are seen as novel qualities that arise from the complex interactions within a system. An example often cited in discussions of strong emergence is consciousness, which some argue cannot be fully explained by the physical processes of the brain alone. [3]

Key characteristics

Emergent properties are characterized by several key features that distinguish them from simple aggregative properties:

Theoretical foundations

The theoretical foundations of emergentism are deeply intertwined with various philosophical theories and debates, particularly those concerning the nature of reality, the relationship between parts and wholes, and the nature of causality. Emergentism contrasts sharply with reductionism, which attempts to explain complex phenomena entirely in terms of their simpler components, and holistic dualism, which emphasizes the whole without necessarily addressing the emergence of properties. [3]

Relationship to other philosophical theories

Emergentism stands in contrast to reductionism, which holds that all phenomena can be fully explained by their constituent parts. Reductionists argue that understanding the basic building blocks of a system provides a complete understanding of the system itself. However, emergentists contend that this approach overlooks the novel properties that arise from complex interactions within a system. For example, while the properties of water can be traced back to hydrogen and oxygen atoms, the wetness of water cannot be fully explained by examining these atoms in isolation. [4]

Holistic dualism, on the other hand, emphasizes the significance of the whole system, suggesting that the properties of the whole are more important than the properties of the parts. Emergentism agrees with holistic dualism to some extent but differs in that it specifically focuses on how new properties emerge from the interactions within the system. Holistic dualism often overlooks the dynamic processes that lead to the emergence of new properties, which are central to emergentism. [3]

Relationship to vitalism

Emmeche et al. (1998) state that "there is a very important difference between the vitalists and the emergentists: the vitalist's creative forces were relevant only in organic substances, not in inorganic matter. Emergence hence is creation of new properties regardless of the substance involved." "The assumption of an extra-physical vitalis (vital force, entelechy, élan vital, etc.), as formulated in most forms (old or new) of vitalism, is usually without any genuine explanatory power. It has served altogether too often as an intellectual tranquilizer or verbal sedative—stifling scientific inquiry rather than encouraging it to proceed in new directions." [13]

Ontological vs. epistemological emergentism

Emergentism can be divided into ontological and epistemological categories, each addressing different aspects of emergent properties. Ontological emergentism asserts that emergent properties genuinely exist in the world. Ontological emergentists argue that emergent properties are real and have causal powers. For example, the consciousness that arises from neural processes in the brain is seen as a real, causally efficacious property that cannot be reduced to or predicted from the underlying physical processes alone. [14] Epistemological emergentism suggests that emergent properties arise due to limitations in knowledge and understanding. According to epistemological emergentists, properties that are perceived as emergent are actually the result of complex interactions that are not yet fully understood. Therefore, these properties are not fundamentally new but appear so because of current epistemic limitations. [3]

Causality

A crucial aspect of emergentism is its treatment of causality, particularly the concept of downward causation. Downward causation refers to the influence that higher-level properties can exert on the behavior of lower-level entities within a system. This idea challenges the traditional view that causation only works from the bottom up, from simpler to more complex levels. [4]

Scientific perspectives

Emergentism finds its scientific support and application across various disciplines, illustrating how complex behaviors and properties arise from simpler interactions. These scientific perspectives demonstrate the practical significance of emergentist theories.

Emergence in physics

In physics, emergence is observed in phenomena where macroscopic properties arise from the interactions of microscopic components. A classic example is superconductivity, where the collective behavior of electrons in certain materials leads to the phenomenon of zero electrical resistance. This emergent property cannot be fully explained by the properties of individual electrons alone, but rather by their interactions within the lattice structure of the material. [7]

Another significant example is quantum entanglement, where particles become interconnected in such a way that the state of one particle instantly influences the state of another, regardless of the distance between them. This non-local property emerges from the quantum interactions and cannot be predicted merely by understanding the individual particles separately. Such emergent properties challenge classical notions of locality and causality, showcasing the profound implications of emergentism in modern physics. [3]

In thermodynamics, emergent behaviors are observed in non-equilibrium systems where patterns and structures spontaneously form. For instance, Bénard cells — a phenomenon where heated fluid forms hexagonal convection cells — arise from thermal gradients and fluid dynamics. This self-organization is an emergent property of the system, highlighting how macro-level order can emerge from micro-level interactions. [4]

Emergence in biology

Emergent phenomena are prevalent in biology, particularly in the study of life and evolutionary processes. One of the most fundamental examples is the emergence of life from non-living chemical compounds. This process, often studied through the lens of abiogenesis, involves complex chemical reactions that lead to self-replicating molecules and eventually living organisms. The properties of life — such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction — emerge from these molecular interactions and cannot be fully understood by examining individual molecules in isolation. [15]

In evolutionary biology, the diversity of life forms arises from genetic mutations, natural selection, and environmental interactions. Complex traits such as the eye or the brain emerge over time through evolutionary processes. These traits exhibit novel properties that are not predictable from the genetic components alone but result from the dynamic interplay between genes and the environment. [3]

Systems biology further illustrates emergent properties in biological networks. For example, metabolic networks where enzymes and substrates interact exhibit emergent behaviors like robustness and adaptability. These properties are crucial for the survival of organisms in changing environments and arise from the complex interconnections within the network. [4]

Emergence in cognitive science

In cognitive science, emergentism plays a crucial role in understanding consciousness and cognitive processes. Consciousness is often cited as a paradigmatic example of an emergent property. While neural processes in the brain involve electrochemical interactions among neurons, the subjective experience of consciousness arises from these processes in a way that is not directly reducible to them. This emergence of conscious experience from neural substrates is a central topic in the philosophy of mind and cognitive science. [16]

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning provide contemporary examples of emergent behavior in artificial systems. Complex algorithms and neural networks can learn, adapt, and exhibit intelligent behavior that is not explicitly programmed. For instance, deep learning models can recognize patterns and make decisions based on vast amounts of data, demonstrating emergent intelligence from simpler computational rules. This emergent behavior in AI systems reflects the principles of emergentism, where higher-level functions arise from the interaction of lower-level components. [9]

Emergentism and language

Emergentism and language are intricately connected through the concept that linguistic properties and structures arise from simpler interactions among cognitive, communicative and social processes. This perspective provides a dynamic view of language development, structure, and evolution, emphasizing the role of interaction and adaptation over innate or static principles. This connection can be explored from several angles:

Linguistic emergence

Emergentism posits that language structures and rules emerge from the interaction of simpler neural and cognitive processes rather than being innate or pre-programmed. This idea contrasts with Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that the ability to acquire language is hard-wired into the brain. Emergentists argue that language arises from general cognitive capabilities such as pattern recognition and memory interacting with environmental input. [3]

Syntax and grammatical rules are seen as emergent properties resulting from the usage patterns of speakers within a language community. As individuals communicate, certain patterns become regularized and form the basis of syntactic rules. These rules are not explicitly taught but emerge naturally from the communicative practices of the community. [4]

In computational linguistics, connectionist or neural network models provide a framework for understanding how language properties can emerge from simpler processes. These models simulate how neural connections in the brain can give rise to complex behaviors like language comprehension and production through learning and interaction. For instance, a neural network might learn to generate grammatically correct sentences by being exposed to large datasets of language, demonstrating emergent properties from the training data. [3]

From a sociolinguistic perspective, the evolution of language itself can be viewed through an emergentist lens. Languages change and develop new properties over time as speakers interact, adapt, and innovate. These changes are emergent phenomena resulting from social interaction, cultural exchange, and cognitive adaptation. [4]

Pragmatics and semantics

Emergentism also applies to the way meaning (semantics) and context (pragmatics) are derived in language. Meaning is not fixed but emerges from the use of words in specific contexts. Pragmatic rules such as implicatures and speech acts arise from the conventions and expectations of communication within a community. These rules are not pre-determined but develop dynamically as speakers interact. [3]

In the context of language acquisition, emergentism suggests that children learn language through interaction with their environment and the gradual build-up of linguistic structures. Children are exposed to language data and, through cognitive processes such as pattern recognition and hypothesis testing, develop an understanding of linguistic rules. This process is emergent because it arises from the interaction of the child's cognitive capabilities with the linguistic input they receive. [3]

Literary emergentism

Literary emergentism is a trend in literary theory. It arises as a reaction against traditional interpretive approaches – hermeneutics, structuralism, semiotics, etc., accusing them of analytical reductionism and lack of hierarchy. Literary emergentism claims to describe the emergence of a text as contemplative logic consisting of seven degrees, similar to the epistemological doctrine of Rudolf Steiner in his Philosophy of Freedom. [17] There are also references to Terrence Deacon, author of the theory of Incomplete nature, according to whom the emergent perspective is metaphysical, whereas the human consciousness emerges as an incessant creation of something from nothing. [18] According to Dimitar Kalev, in all modern literary-theoretical discourses, there is an epistemological "gap" present between the sensory-imagery phenomena of reading and their proto-phenomena from the text. [19] Therefore, in any attempt at literary reconstructions, certain "destruction" is reached, which, from an epistemological point of view, is a designation of the existing transcendence as some "interruption" of the divine "top-down". The emergentist approach does not interpret the text but rather reconstructs its becoming, identifying itself with the contemplative logic of the writer, claiming that it possesses a being of ideal objectivity and universal accessibility.

Criticisms and debates

Emergentism, like any philosophical theory, has been subject to various criticisms and debates. These discussions revolve around the validity of emergent properties, the explanatory power of emergentism, and its implications for other areas of philosophy and science.

Main criticisms

Responses to criticisms

These criticisms and debates highlight the dynamic and evolving nature of emergentism, reflecting its impact and relevance across various fields of inquiry. By addressing these challenges, proponents of emergentism continue to refine and strengthen their theoretical framework.

Applications

Emergentism finds applications across various scientific and philosophical domains, illustrating how complex behaviors and properties can arise from simpler interactions. These applications underscore the practical relevance of emergentist theories and their impact on understanding complex systems.

In science

In philosophy

Interdisciplinary applications

These applications of emergentism illustrate its broad relevance and utility in explaining and understanding complex systems across various domains, highlighting the interdisciplinary impact of emergentist theories.

Notable philosophers and scientists

Emergentism has been significantly shaped and debated by numerous philosophers and scientists over the years:

Philosopher or scientistContributionMajor work
Aristotle One of the earliest thinkers to suggest that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not. This idea laid the foundational groundwork for emergentist thought by emphasizing that certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by their individual components alone.Metaphysics [22]
George Henry Lewes Formally introduced the term "emergence" in the 19th century. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties where emergent properties could not be predicted from the properties of the parts.Problems of Life and Mind [23]
John Stuart Mill Early proponent of emergentism in social and political contexts. Mill's work emphasized the importance of understanding social phenomena as more than the sum of individual actions.A System of Logic [24]
C. D. Broad In his 1925 book The Mind and Its Place in Nature, Broad argued that mental states were emergent properties of brain processes. He developed a comprehensive philosophical framework for emergentism and advocated for the irreducibility of higher-level properties.The Mind and Its Place in Nature [5]
Samuel Alexander In his work Space, Time, and Deity, Alexander suggested that emergent qualities like consciousness and life could not be fully explained by underlying physical processes alone.Space, Time, and Deity [6]
Jaegwon Kim A prominent critic and commentator on emergentism. Kim extensively analyzed the limits and scope of emergent properties, particularly in the context of mental causation and the philosophy of mind, questioning the coherence and causal efficacy of emergent properties.Mind in a Physical World [14]
Michael Polanyi Advanced the idea that emergent properties are irreducible and possess their own causal powers. Polanyi's work in chemistry and philosophy of science provided empirical and theoretical support for emergentist concepts, especially in complex systems and hierarchical structures.Personal Knowledge [25]
Philip W. Anderson Nobel laureate in physics, Anderson's work on condensed matter physics and the theory of superconductivity provided significant empirical examples of emergent phenomena. His famous essay "More is Different" argued for the necessity of emergentist explanations in physics.More is Different [26]
Stuart Kauffman A theoretical biologist whose work in complex systems and self-organization highlighted the role of emergence in biological evolution and the origin of life. Kauffman emphasized the unpredictability and novelty of emergent biological properties.The Origins of Order [8]
Roger Sperry Neuropsychologist and Nobel laureate, Sperry's split-brain research contributed to the understanding of consciousness as an emergent property of brain processes. He argued that emergent mental properties have causal efficacy that influences the lower-level neural processes.Science and Moral Priority [27]
Terrence Deacon Anthropologist and neuroscientist, Deacon's work on the evolution of language and human cognition explored how emergent properties arise from neural and social interactions. His book Incomplete Nature delves into the emergentist explanation of life and mind.Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter [28]
Steven Johnson An author and theorist whose popular science books, such as Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software, have brought the concept of emergentism to a broader audience. Johnson illustrates how complex systems in nature and society exhibit emergent properties.Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software [9]

Notes

  1. 1 2 , O'Connor, Timothy and Wong, Hong Yu (eds.), "Emergent Properties", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
  2. ↑ Kistler, Max (2006). "New Perspectives on Reduction and Emergence in Physics, Biology and Psychology" . Synthese. 151 (3): 311–312. doi:10.1007/s11229-006-9014-3. ISSN   0039-7857. JSTOR   20118808. S2CID   36301964 . Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 O'Connor 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Van Gulick.
  5. 1 2 Broad 1925, p. 56.
  6. 1 2 Alexander 1920, p. 213.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Anderson 1972.
  8. 1 2 Kauffman 1993, p. 71.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Johnson 2001.
  10. ↑ Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems, Jason Winning & William Bechtel In Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019)
  11. ↑ Franklin, James (2019). "Emergentism as an option in the philosophy of religion: Between materialist atheism and pantheism". Suri: Journal of the Philosophical Association of the Philippines. 7 (2): 1–22. Retrieved 16 April 2025.
  12. ↑ Broad 1925, p. 64.
  13. ↑ Dictionary of the History of Ideas Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine
  14. 1 2 Kim 1998, p. 97.
  15. ↑ Kauffman 1993, p. 88.
  16. ↑ Kim 1998, p. 102.
  17. ↑ Steiner, Rudolf. (2010). Die Philosophie der Freiheit. Rudolf Steiner online archiv. 4. Auflage., The philosophy of freedom. Rudolf Steiner’s online archive. (4th edition.), German.
  18. ↑ Deacon, Terrence W. (2003). The hierarchic logic of emergence: Untangling the interdependence of evolution and self-organization. In B. Weber and D. Depen (Eds.), Evolution and learning: The Baldwin effect reconsidered (pp. 273–308). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
  19. ↑ Kalev D. Literary emergentism. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/121134447/LITERARY_EMERGENTISM
  20. ↑ Kim 1998, p. 112.
  21. ↑ Kim 1998, p. 119.
  22. ↑ Aristotle, Metaphysics (Aristotle) , Book VIII (Eta) 1045a 8–10: "... the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts ...", i.e., the whole is other than the sum of the parts.
  23. ↑ Lewes 1875, p. 78.
  24. ↑ Mill 1843, p. 152.
  25. ↑ Polanyi 1958, p. 202.
  26. ↑ Anderson 1972, p. 393.
  27. ↑ Sperry 1983, p. 145.
  28. ↑ Deacon 2012, p. 189.

References

Further reading

See also

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