Drug-related crime

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DEA Operation Mallorca, 2005 DEA Operation Mallorca, 2005.jpg
DEA Operation Mallorca, 2005
Typical collateral damage of drug-related theft Drogenbeschaffungskriminalitaet 9526.jpg
Typical collateral damage of drug-related theft

A drug-related crime is a crime to possess, manufacture, or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse (such as cocaine, heroin, morphine and amphetamines). Drugs are also related to crime as drug trafficking and drug production are often controlled by drug cartels, organised crime and gangs. Some drug-related crime involves crime against the person such as robbery or sexual assaults. [1]

Contents

U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics

In 2002, in the U.S. about a quarter of convicted property and drug offenders in local jails had committed their crimes to get money for drugs, compared to 5% of violent and public order offenders. Among State prisoners in 2004 the pattern was similar, with property (30%) and drug offenders (26%) more likely to commit their crimes for drug money than violent (10%) and public-order offenders (7%). In Federal prisons property offenders (11%) were less than half as likely as drug offenders (25%) to report drug money as a motive in their offenses.

In 2004, 17% of U.S. State prisoners and 18% of Federal inmates said they committed their current offense to obtain money for drugs. These percentages represent a slight increase for Federal prisoners (16% in 1997) and a slight decrease for State prisoners (19% in 1997).

Drugs and crime

Drug abuse and addiction is associated with drug-related crimes. In the U.S. several jurisdictions have reported that benzodiazepine misuse by criminal detainees has surpassed that of opiates. [2] Patients reporting to two emergency rooms in Canada with violence-related injuries were most often found to be intoxicated with alcohol and were significantly more likely to test positive for benzodiazepines (most commonly temazepam) than other groups of individuals, whereas other drugs were found to be insignificant in relation to violent injuries. [3]

Research carried out on drug-related crime found that drug misuse is associated with various crimes that are in part related to the feelings of invincibility, which can become particularly pronounced with abuse. Problematic crimes associated include shoplifting, property crime, drug dealing, violence and aggression and driving whilst intoxicated. [4] In Scotland among the 71% of suspected criminals testing positive for controlled drugs at the time of their arrest benzodiazepines (over 85% are temazepam cases) are detected more frequently than opiates and are second only to cannabis, which is the most frequently detected drug. [5]

Research carried out by the Australian government found that benzodiazepine users are more likely to be violent, more likely to have been in contact with the police, and more likely to have been charged with criminal behavior than those using opiates. Illicit benzodiazepines mostly originate from medical practitioners but leak onto the illicit scene due to diversion and doctor shopping. Although only a very small number originate from thefts, forged prescriptions, armed robberies, or ram raids, it is most often benzodiazepines, rather than opiates, that are targeted in part because benzodiazepines are not usually locked in vaults and or do not have as strict laws governing prescription and storage of many benzodiazepines. Temazepam accounts for most benzodiazepine sought by forgery of prescriptions and through pharmacy burglary in Australia. [6] [7]

Benzodiazepines have been used as a tool of murder by serial killers, and other murderers, such as those with the condition Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy. [8] [9] [10] Benzodiazepines have also been used to facilitate rape or robbery crimes, and benzodiazepine dependence has been linked to shoplifting due to the fugue state induced by the chronic use of the drug. [11] [12] When benzodiazepines are used for criminal purposes against a victim they are often mixed with food or drink. [13]

Temazepam and midazolam are the most common benzodiazepines used to facilitate date rape. [14] Alprazolam has been abused for the purpose of carrying out acts of incest and for the corruption of adolescent girls. [15] However, alcohol remains the most common drug involved in cases of drug rape. [16] Although benzodiazepines and ethanol are the most frequent drugs used in sexual assaults, GHB is another potential date rape drug that has received increased media focus. [17]

Some benzodiazepines are more associated with crime than others especially when abused or taken in combination with alcohol. The potent benzodiazepine flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), which has strong amnesia-producing effects can cause abusers to become ruthless and also cause feelings of being invincible. This has led to some acts of extreme violence to others, often leaving abusers with no recollection of what they have done in their drug-induced state. It has been proposed that criminal and violent acts brought on by benzodiazepine abuse may be related to lowered serotonin levels via enhanced GABAergic effects. [18]

Flunitrazepam has been implicated as the cause of one serial killer's violent rampage, triggering off extreme aggression with anterograde amnesia. [19] A study on forensic psychiatric patients who had abused flunitrazepam at the time of their crimes found that the patients displayed extreme violence, lacked the ability to think clearly, and experienced a loss of empathy for their victims while under the influence of flunitrazepam, and it was found that the abuse of alcohol or other drugs in combination with flunitrazepam compounded the problem. Their behaviour under the influence of flunitrazepam was in contrast to their normal psychological state. [20]

Criticisms

The concept of drug-related crime has been criticized for being too blunt, especially in its failure to distinguish between three types of crime associated with drugs: [21]

Drug-related crime may be used as a justification for prohibition, but, in the case of system-related crime, the acts are only crimes because of prohibition.[ citation needed ] In addition, some consider even user-related and economic-related aspects of crime as symptomatic of a broader problem.[ citation needed ]

See also

General:

Organized crime:

US specific:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzodiazepine</span> Class of depressant drugs

Benzodiazepines, colloquially called "benzos", are a class of depressant drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. They are prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety disorders, insomnia, and seizures. The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 and was made available in 1960 by Hoffmann–La Roche, who soon followed with diazepam (Valium) in 1963. By 1977, benzodiazepines were the most prescribed medications globally; the introduction of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), among other factors, decreased rates of prescription, but they remain frequently used worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flunitrazepam</span> Benzodiazepine sedative

Flunitrazepam, also known as Rohypnol among other names, is a benzodiazepine used to treat severe insomnia and assist with anesthesia. As with other hypnotics, flunitrazepam has been advised to be prescribed only for short-term use or by those with chronic insomnia on an occasional basis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substance abuse</span> Harmful use of drugs

Substance abuse, also known as drug abuse, is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods that are harmful to the individual or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder. Differing definitions of drug abuse are used in public health, medical, and criminal justice contexts. In some cases, criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long-term personality changes in individuals may also occur. In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, the use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diazepam</span> Benzodiazepine sedative

Diazepam, first marketed as Valium, is a medicine of the benzodiazepine family that acts as an anxiolytic. It is commonly used to treat a range of conditions, including anxiety, seizures, alcohol withdrawal syndrome, muscle spasms, insomnia, and restless legs syndrome. It may also be used to cause memory loss during certain medical procedures. It can be taken orally, as a suppository inserted into the rectum, intramuscularly, intravenously or used as a nasal spray. When injected intravenously, effects begin in one to five minutes and last up to an hour. Orally, effects begin after 15 to 60 minutes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Temazepam</span> Insomnia medication

Temazepam, sold under the brand name Restoril among others, is a medication of the benzodiazepine class which is generally used to treat severe or debilitating insomnia. It is taken by mouth. Temazepam is rapidly absorbed, and significant hypnotic effects begin in less than 30 minutes and can last for up to eight hours. Prescriptions for hypnotics such as temazepam have seen a dramatic decrease since 2010, while anxiolytics such as alprazolam, clonazepam, and lorazepam have increased or remained stable. Temazepam and similar hypnotics, such as triazolam (Halcion) are generally reserved for severe and debilitating insomnia. They have largely been replaced by z-drugs and atypical antidepressants as first line treatment for insomnia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sedative</span> Drug that reduces excitement without inducing sleep

A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement. They are CNS depressants and interact with brain activity causing its deceleration. Various kinds of sedatives can be distinguished, but the majority of them affect the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). In spite of the fact that each sedative acts in its own way, most produce relaxing effects by increasing GABA activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug overdose</span> Use of an excessive amount of a drug

A drug overdose is the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities much greater than are recommended. Typically it is used for cases when a risk to health will potentially result. An overdose may result in a toxic state or death.

A date rape drug is any drug that incapacitates another person and renders that person vulnerable to sexual assault, including rape. The substances are associated with date rape because of reported incidents of their use in the context of two people dating, during which the victim is sexually assaulted or raped or suffers other harm. However, substances have also been exploited during retreats, for example ayahuasca retreats. The substances are not exclusively used to perpetrate sexual assault or rape, but are the properties or side-effects of substances normally used for legitimate medical purposes. One of the most common incapacitating agents for date rape is alcohol, administered either surreptitiously or consumed voluntarily, rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carisoprodol</span> Muscle relaxant medication

Carisoprodol, sold under the brand name Soma among others, is a medication used for musculoskeletal pain. Use is only approved for up to three weeks. Effects generally begin within half an hour and last for up to six hours. It is taken orally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zopiclone</span> Hypnotic medication

Zopiclone, sold under the brand name Imovane among others, is a nonbenzodiazepine used to treat difficulty sleeping. Zopiclone is molecularly distinct from benzodiazepine drugs and is classed as a cyclopyrrolone. However, zopiclone increases the normal transmission of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the central nervous system, via modulating GABAA receptors similarly to the way benzodiazepine drugs do.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nitrazepam</span> Benzodiazepine sedative

Nitrazepam, sold under the brand name Mogadon among others, is a hypnotic drug of the benzodiazepine class used for short-term relief from severe, disabling anxiety and insomnia. It also has sedative (calming) properties, as well as amnestic, anticonvulsant, and skeletal muscle relaxant effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oxazepam</span> Benzodiazepine medication

Oxazepam is a short-to-intermediate-acting benzodiazepine. Oxazepam is used for the treatment of anxiety and insomnia and in the control of symptoms of alcohol withdrawal syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nimetazepam</span> Benzodiazepine medication

Nimetazepam is an intermediate-acting hypnotic drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It was first synthesized by a team at Hoffmann-La Roche in 1964. It possesses powerful hypnotic, anxiolytic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Nimetazepam is also a particularly potent anticonvulsant. It is marketed in 5 mg tablets known as Erimin, which is the brand name manufactured and marketed by the large Japanese corporation Sumitomo. Japan is the sole manufacturer of nimetazepam in the world. Outside of Japan, Erimin is available in much of East and Southeast Asia and was widely prescribed for the short-term treatment of severe insomnia in patients who have difficulty falling asleep or maintaining sleep. Sumitomo has ceased manufacturing Erimin since November 2015. It is still available as a generic drug or as Lavol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brotizolam</span> Benzodiazepine

Brotizolam is a sedative-hypnotic thienotriazolodiazepine drug which is a benzodiazepine analog. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties, and is considered to be similar in effect to other short-acting hypnotic benzodiazepines such as triazolam or midazolam. It is used in the short-term treatment of severe insomnia. Brotizolam is a highly potent and short-acting hypnotic, with a typical dose ranging from 0.125 to 0.25 milligrams, which is rapidly eliminated with an average half-life of 4.4 hours.

GABA gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a key chemical messenger or a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, that significantly inhibits neuronal transmission. GABA calms the brain and controls several physiological processes, such as stress, anxiety, and sleep. GABAA receptors are a class of ionotropic receptors that are triggered by GABA. They are made up of five subunits that are assembled in various configurations to create distinct receptor subtypes. The direct influx of chloride ions causes rapid inhibitory responses. GABAB receptors are another type of metabotropic receptor that modifies intracellular signaling pathways to provide slower, sustained inhibitory responses. At synapses, GABAA receptors facilitate rapid inhibitory neurotransmission, whereas GABAB receptor which comprise GABA B1 and GABA B2 subunits—control neurotransmitter release and cellular excitability over a longer period of time. As these. These unique qualities help explain the various ways that GABAergic neurotransmission controls brain communication and neuronal function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzodiazepine dependence</span> Medical condition

Benzodiazepine dependence defines a situation in which one has developed one or more of either tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, drug seeking behaviors, such as continued use despite harmful effects, and maladaptive pattern of substance use, according to the DSM-IV. In the case of benzodiazepine dependence, however, the continued use seems to be associated with the avoidance of unpleasant withdrawal reaction rather than from the pleasurable effects of the drug. Benzodiazepine dependence develops with long-term use, even at low therapeutic doses, without the described dependence behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzodiazepine overdose</span> Medical condition

Benzodiazepine overdose describes the ingestion of one of the drugs in the benzodiazepine class in quantities greater than are recommended or generally practiced. The most common symptoms of overdose include central nervous system (CNS) depression, impaired balance, ataxia, and slurred speech. Severe symptoms include coma and respiratory depression. Supportive care is the mainstay of treatment of benzodiazepine overdose. There is an antidote, flumazenil, but its use is controversial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzodiazepine use disorder</span> Medical condition

Benzodiazepine use disorder (BUD), also called misuse or abuse, is the use of benzodiazepines without a prescription and/or for recreational purposes, which poses risks of dependence, withdrawal and other long-term effects. Benzodiazepines are one of the more common prescription drugs used recreationally. When used recreationally benzodiazepines are usually administered orally but sometimes they are taken intranasally or intravenously. Recreational use produces effects similar to alcohol intoxication.

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a sexual assault carried out on a person after the person has become intoxicated due to being under the influence of any mind-altering substances, such as having consumed alcohol or been intentionally administered another date rape drug. The rape form of DFSA is also known as predator rape. 75% of all acquaintance rapes involve alcohol and/or drugs. Drugs, when used with or without alcohol, result in a loss of consciousness and a loss of the ability to consent to sex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol (drug)</span> Active ingredient in alcoholic beverages

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a depressant drug that is the active ingredient in fermented drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits. It is one of the oldest and most commonly consumed recreational drugs, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication ("drunkenness"). Among other effects, alcohol produces happiness and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, and generalized depression of central nervous system (CNS) function.

References

  1. ↑ Marc B, Baudry F, Vaquero P, Zerrouki L, Hassnaoui S, Douceron H (April 2000). "Sexual assault under benzodiazepine submission in a Paris suburb". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 263 (4): 193–7. doi:10.1007/s004040050282. PMID   10834331. S2CID   11093298.
  2. ↑ Yacoubian GS. (January 2003). "Correlates of Drug use among a sample of arrestees surveyed through the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program". Substance Use & Misuse. 38 (1): 127–39. doi:10.1081/JA-120016569. PMID   12602810. S2CID   25817581.
  3. ↑ Macdonald S; Wells S; Giesbrecht N; Cherpitel CJ (June 1, 1999). "Demographic and substance use factors related to violent and accidental injuries: results from an emergency room study". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 55 (1–2): 53–61. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00184-7. PMID   10402149.
  4. ↑ Australian Government; National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (2007). "Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime" (PDF). NDLERF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2008.
  5. ↑ The Scottish Government Publications (25 July 2000). "Interviewing and Drug Testing of Arrestees in Scotland: A Pilot of the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Methodology (ADAM)" . Retrieved 27 December 2008.
  6. ↑ "Injecting Temazepam: The facts — Temazepam Injection and Diversion". Victorian Government Health Information. 29 March 2007. Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
  7. ↑ National Drug Strategy; National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (2007). "Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime - An examination of illicit prescription drug markets in Melbourne, Hobart and Darwin" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2008.
  8. ↑ Missliwetz J (July–August 1981). "[Serial homicide in the Vienna-Lainz hospital]". Archiv für Kriminologie. 194 (1–2): 1–7. PMID   7979864.
  9. ↑ Valentine JL; Schexnayder S; Jones JG; Sturner WQ (September 1997). "Clinical and toxicological findings in two young siblings and autopsy findings in one sibling with multiple hospital admissions resulting in death. Evidence suggesting Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 18 (3): 276–81. doi:10.1097/00000433-199709000-00009. PMID   9290875.
  10. ↑ Saito T; Takeichi S; Nakajima Y; Yukawa N; Osawa M (November–December 1997). "A case of homicidal poisoning involving several drugs". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 21 (7): 584–6. doi:10.1093/jat/21.7.584. PMID   9399131.
  11. ↑ Boussairi A; Dupeyron JP; Hernandez B; Delaitre D; Beugnet L; Espinoza P; Diamant-Berger O (1996). "Urine benzodiazepines screening of involuntarily drugged and robbed or raped patients". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 34 (6): 721–4. doi:10.3109/15563659609013835. PMID   8941203.
  12. ↑ Tang CP; Pang AH; Ungvari GS (July 1996). "Shoplifting and robbery in a fugue state". Medicine, Science, and the Law. 36 (3): 265–8. doi:10.1177/002580249603600315. PMID   8918097. S2CID   77259419.
  13. ↑ Ohshima T. (January 2006). "A case of drug-facilitated sexual assault by the use of flunitrazepam". Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine. 13 (1): 44–5. doi:10.1016/j.jcfm.2005.05.006. PMID   16087387.
  14. ↑ Negrusz A; Gaensslen RE (August 2003). "Analytical developments in toxicological investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assault". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 376 (8): 1192–7. doi:10.1007/s00216-003-1896-z. PMID   12682705. S2CID   34401047.
  15. ↑ Kintz P; Villain M; Chèze M; Pépin G (October 29, 2005). "Identification of alprazolam in hair in two cases of drug-facilitated incidents". Forensic Science International. 153 (2–3): 222–6. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.025. PMID   16139113.
  16. ↑ Weir E. (July 10, 2001). "Drug-facilitated date rape". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 165 (1): 80. PMC   81265 . PMID   11468961.
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  18. ↑ Dåderman A; Lidberg L. (March 3, 1999). "[Rohypnol should be classified as a narcotic]". Läkartidningen. 96 (9): 1005–7. PMID   10093441.
  19. ↑ Dåderman AM; Strindlund H; Wiklund N; Fredriksen SO; Lidberg L (October 14, 2003). "The importance of a urine sample in persons intoxicated with flunitrazepam--legal issues in a forensic psychiatric case study of a serial murderer". Forensic Science International. 137 (1): 21–7. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00273-1. PMID   14550609.
  20. ↑ Dåderman AM; Fredriksson B; Kristiansson M; Nilsson LH; Lidberg L (2002). "Violent behavior, impulsive decision-making, and anterograde amnesia while intoxicated with flunitrazepam and alcohol or other drugs: a case study in forensic psychiatric patients". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. 30 (2): 238–51. PMID   12108561.
  21. 1 2 3 4 "Drug-Related Crime". The National Center for Victims of Crime. 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-11-26. Retrieved 2023-06-24.
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