Psychedelic therapy

Last updated

Psychedelic therapy (or psychedelic-assisted therapy) refers to the proposed use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin, ayahuasca, LSD, psilocin, mescaline [1] (peyote), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, [2] Ibogaine, [3] MDMA, [note 1] to treat mental disorders. [5] [6] As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside clinical trials, with some exceptions. [6] [7]

Contents

The procedure for psychedelic therapy differs from that of therapies using conventional psychiatric medications. While conventional medications are usually taken without supervision at least once daily, in contemporary psychedelic therapy the drug is administered in a single session (or sometimes up to three sessions) in a therapeutic context. [8] The therapeutic team prepares the patient for the experience beforehand and helps them integrate insights from the drug experience afterwards. [9] [10] After ingesting the drug, the patient normally wears eyeshades and listens to music to facilitate focus on the psychedelic experience, with the therapeutic team interrupting only to provide reassurance if adverse effects such as anxiety or disorientation arise. [9] [10]

As of 2022, the body of high-quality evidence on psychedelic therapy remains relatively small and more, larger studies are needed to reliably show the effectiveness and safety of psychedelic therapy's various forms and applications. [11] [12] [5] On the basis of favorable early results, ongoing research is examining proposed psychedelic therapies for conditions including major depressive disorder, [11] [13] anxiety and depression linked to terminal illness, [11] [14] and post-traumatic stress disorder. [12] [15] The United States Food and Drug Administration has granted "breakthrough therapy" status, which expedites the potential approval of promising drug therapies, [note 2] to psychedelic therapies using psilocybin (for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder) [6] and MDMA (for post-traumatic stress disorder). [17]

History

Prehistoric use of psychedelic substances

Humans have long consumed psychedelic substances derived from cacti, seeds, bark, and roots of various plants and fungi. [18] [19] Since ancient times, shamans and medicine men have used psychedelics as a way to gain access to the spirit world. Though western culture usually views the practice of shamans and medicine men as predominantly spiritual in nature, elements of psychotherapeutic practice can be read into the entheogenic or shamanic rituals of many cultures. [20]

Research in the mid-20th century

Shortly after Albert Hofmann discovered the psychoactive properties of LSD in 1943, [21] Sandoz Laboratories began widespread distribution of LSD to researchers in 1949. [22] Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, scientists in several countries conducted extensive research into experimental chemotherapeutic and psychotherapeutic uses of psychedelic drugs. In addition to spawning six international conferences and the release of dozens of books, over 1,000 peer-reviewed clinical papers detailing the use of psychedelic compounds (administered to approximately 40,000 patients) were published by the mid-1960s. [23] Proponents believed that psychedelic drugs facilitated psychoanalytic processes, making them particularly useful for patients with conditions such as alcoholism that are otherwise difficult to treat. However, many of these trials did not meet the methodological standards that are required today. [24]

Researchers like Timothy Leary felt psychedelics could alter the fundamental personality structure or subjective value-system of an individual to great potential benefit. Beginning in 1961, he conducted experiments with prison inmates in an attempt to reduce recidivism with short, intense psychotherapy sessions. Participants were administered psilocybin during these sessions weeks apart with regular group therapy sessions in between. [25] Psychedelic therapy was also applied in a number of other specific patient populations including individuals with alcoholism, children with autism, and persons with terminal illness. [25]

Regulation and prohibition in the late 20th century

Throughout the 1960s, concerns raised about the proliferation of unauthorized use of psychedelic drugs by the general public (and, most notably, the counterculture) resulted in the imposition of increasingly severe restrictions on medical and psychiatric research conducted with psychedelic substances. [26] Many countries either banned LSD outright or made it extremely scarce, and, bowing to governmental concerns, Sandoz halted production of LSD in 1965. During a congressional hearing in 1966, Senator Robert F. Kennedy questioned the shift of opinion, stating, "Perhaps to some extent we have lost sight of the fact that (LSD) can be very, very helpful in our society if used properly." [27] In 1968, Dahlberg and colleagues published an article in the American Journal of Psychiatry detailing various forces that had successfully discredited legitimate LSD research. [28] The essay argues that individuals in government and the pharmaceutical industry sabotaged the psychedelic research community by canceling ongoing studies and analysis while labeling genuine scientists as charlatans. [28]

Studies on medicinal applications of psychedelics ceased entirely in the United States when the Controlled Substances Act was passed in 1970. LSD and many other psychedelics were placed into the most restrictive "Schedule I" category by the United States Drug Enforcement Administration. Schedule I compounds are claimed to possess "a high potential for abuse and the potential to create severe psychological and/or physical dependence" and have "no currently accepted medical use", [29] effectively rendering them illegal to use in the United States for all purposes. Despite objections from the scientific community, authorized research into therapeutic applications of psychedelic drugs had been discontinued worldwide by the 1980s.

Despite broad prohibition, unofficial psychedelic research and therapeutic sessions continued nevertheless in the following decades. Some therapists exploited windows of opportunity preceding scheduling of particular psychedelic drugs. Informal psychedelic therapy was conducted clandestinely in underground networks consisting of sessions carried out both by licensed therapists and autodidacts within the community. [30] Due to the largely illegal nature of psychedelic therapy in this period, little information is available concerning the methods that were used. Individuals having published information between 1980 and 2000 regarding psychedelic psychotherapy include George Greer, Ann and Alexander Shulgin ( PiHKAL and TiHKAL ), Myron Stolaroff (The Secret Chief, regarding the underground therapy done by Leo Zeff), and Athanasios Kafkalides. [31]

Resurgence in the early 21st century

Psilocybin session at Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins psilocybin session room-SessionRm 2176x.jpg
Psilocybin session at Johns Hopkins

In the early 2000s, a renewal of interest in the psychiatric use of psychedelics contributed to an increase in clinical research centering on the psychopharmacological effects of these drugs and their subsequent applications. Advances in science and technology allowed researchers to collect and interpret extensive data from animal studies, and the advent of new technologies such as PET and MRI scanning made it possible to examine the sites of action of hallucinogens in the brain. [32] Furthermore, retrospective studies involving users of illicit drugs as voluntary subjects were conducted, allowing data to be collected on how psychedelics affect the human brain while simultaneously sidestepping bureaucratic difficulties associated with providing illegal substances to subjects. [32] The new century also ushered in a broader change in political attitude towards psychedelic medicine—specifically within the Food and Drug Administration. Curtis Wright, then deputy director of the FDA Division of Anesthetic, Critical Care and Addiction Drugs explained a motivation for this change: "the agency was challenged legally in a number of cases and also underwent a process of introspection, asking 'Is it proper to treat this class of drugs differently?'" [32]

As of 2014, global treaties listing LSD and psilocybin as "Schedule I" controlled substances continues to inhibit a better understanding of these drugs. Much of the renewed clinical research has been conducted with psilocybin and MDMA in the United States with special permission and breakthrough therapy designations by the FDA, while other studies have investigated the mechanisms and effects of ayahuasca and LSD. [33] [34] [35] MDMA-assisted psychotherapy is being actively researched by MAPS.

As of 2023, many new centers for psychedelics research have been launched, including the Centre for Psychedelic Research at Imperial College London, [36] [37] the UC Berkeley Center for the Science of Psychedelics, [38] the Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research at Johns Hopkins University, [39] [40] the Center for Psychedelic Research and Therapy at Dell Medical School at the University of Texas at Austin, [41] the Center for Psychedelic Psychotherapy and Trauma Research at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, [42] the Psychae Institute in Melbourne, [43] and the Naut sa mawt Center for Psychedelic Research at Vancouver Island University. [44] Harvard will create a Study of Psychedelics in Society and Culture. [45]

A survey published in 2023 [46] found strong support for psychedelic therapy among psychiatrists in the United States, revealing a significant positive shift in attitudes toward this treatment modality in comparison to a previous survey published in 2018. [47] More than half of psychiatrists in the 2023 study expressed intentions to incorporate psychedelic therapy into their practice if regulatory approval is granted. In Australia, authorised psychiatrists can prescribe psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression, and MDMA for post-traumatic stress disorder. [48]

In 2024, an FDA advisory panel voted against approving MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD, "raising questions about the credibility of the research being conducted and the safety of those involved in the trials". The FDA advisors voted 9-2 that the available data didn’t show MDMA was effective in treating PTSD, and 10-1 that the benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy did not outweigh the risks. [49]

Applications

Psychedelic substances which may have therapeutic uses include psilocybin (the main active compound found in "magic" mushrooms), mescaline (the main active compound in the peyote cactus), and LSD. [33] Although the history behind these substances has hindered research into their potential medicinal value, scientists are now able to conduct studies and renew research that was halted in the 1970s. Some research has shown that these substances have helped people with such mental disorders as obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, alcoholism, depression, and cluster headaches. [50] Some of the well known particular psychedelic substances that have been used to this day are: LSD, DMT, psilocybin, mescaline, 2C-B, 2C-I, 5-MeO-DMT, AMT, ibogaine, and DOM. In general, the mechanism of action of how these drugs have therapeutic effects is poorly understood. Their effects are strongly dependent on the environment in which they are given and on the recipient's state of mind (set and setting). [51]

In substance use disorders

Studies by Humphry Osmond, Betty Eisner, and others examined the possibility that psychedelic therapy could treat alcoholism (or, less commonly, other addictions). Bill Wilson, the founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, used LSD during supervised experiments with Betty Eisner, Gerald Heard, and Aldous Huxley. He ingested LSD for the first time on August 29, 1956. With Wilson's invitation, his wife Lois, his spiritual adviser Father Ed Dowling, and Nell Wing also participated in experimentation of this drug. Later Wilson wrote to Carl Jung, praising the results and recommending it as validation of Jung's spiritual experience. [52] According to Wilson, the session allowed him to re-experience a spontaneous spiritual experience he had had years before, which had enabled him to overcome his own alcoholism.

A 1998 review of the effectiveness of psychedelic therapy for treating alcoholism concluded that due to methodological difficulties in the research prior to that time, it was not possible to state whether it was effective. [53] A 2012 meta-analysis found that "In a pooled analysis of six randomized controlled clinical trials, a single dose of LSD had a significant beneficial effect on alcohol misuse at the first reported follow-up assessment, which ranged from 1 to 12 months after discharge from each treatment program. This treatment effect from LSD on alcohol misuse was also seen at 2 to 3 months and at 6 months, but was not statistically significant at 12 months post-treatment. Among the three trials that reported total abstinence from alcohol use, there was also a significant beneficial effect of LSD at the first reported follow-up, which ranged from 1 to 3 months after discharge from each treatment program." [54]

In 2022 a systematic review was published on the efficacy of ibogaine/noribogaine, an indole alkaloid with “anti-addictive” properties, to treat substance use disorders looking at studies up to December 2020. [55] Oral ingestion of ibogaine leads to an intense psychedelic experience with effects lasting up to 72 hours that lead participants to insights that may change the way they view life and their ways of thinking; however, the mechanism of how this drug works to reduce substance use is not yet understood. [56] Evidence suggests that ibogaine does have some reduction on opioid and cocaine misuse, but more well designed, larger randomly controlled trials are required to fully understand the therapeutic benefits. [55] Significant adverse reactions were experienced by participants including cardiotoxicity, QT prolongation, ataxia, psychosis, and several fatalities were reported due to toxic adverse events. [57] Analysis of the fatalities concluded that patients with cardiac comorbidities and that those that are taking concurrent medications are at higher risk of a medical emergency. [58]

A systematic review completed in 2023, containing studies from the past decade, looked at the ability of psychedelic therapy in combination with psychotherapy to help reduce substance use, cravings, and abstinence of addictions including alcohol, cocaine, opioids, and nicotine. Studies commonly reported reductions in substance misuse, however, the quality of evidence is too low to draw solid conclusions on the efficacy of psychedelic treatments for substance use disorders. [59]

However, a systematic review of human and animal studies showed that a single dose of LSD for treatment of AUD led to greater odds of improvement in alcohol consumption than control participants. [60]

In terminal illness

During the early 1950s and 1960s the National Institute of Mental Health sponsored the study of psychedelic drugs such as psilocybin and LSD to alleviate the debilitating anxiety and depression patients with terminal diagnoses may feel. [61] While these early studies are hard to find, the resurgence of interest in psychedelic drugs to treat humans end of life mindset has led to some small studies in the 21st century. The more recently published research strengthens the findings from the 1950s and 1960s showing the drug is extremely effective in reducing anxiety and depression in this patient population once carefully screened and has few adverse effects when administered in a psychotherapy setting and under medical supervision. The psychologists leading psychedelic drug therapy trials found that end of life patients often experience the emotional turmoil of dying more than the physical aspects. This mindset makes it difficult for patients to find meaning and enjoyment in life during their last few months or years. [62] While all patients have completely different experiences on these mind altering drugs the research subjects interviewed all expressed they had, "heightened clarity and confidence about their personal values and priorities, and a renewed or enhanced recognition of intrinsic meaning and value of life." [61] More recently, researchers have argued that psychedelic therapy is beneficial for these patients because it may specifically reduce their fear of dying. [63]

As of 2016, Johns Hopkins University and New York University have conducted large randomized, placebo-controlled studies. [64] These two studies are some of the first large controlled studies measuring the effects of psychedelic therapy on depression and anxiety in cancer patients. [64] Across clinician-ratings and self-ratings, the psychedelic treatment produced statistically significant lowered anxiety and depression, with sustenance for at least 6 months. [65] [66] The studies monitored for adverse effects from the drugs but no serious adverse effects were observed. [65] [66] Both studies also attributed the efficacy in part to patients experiencing a "mystical experience". [65] [66] A mystical experience is a very personal introspective experience where some sort of unity or transcendence of time and space is described. [67] More research is necessary to expand generalizability of the conclusions. Also, more research is necessary to understand the biological properties of a mystical experience. [66] [68]

Evidence is growing for the use of atypical psychedelics such as ketamine for treating depression in terminally ill patients, with repeated IV administration having the most therapeutic effect. [62] These studies did not have any patients experience any serious adverse effects; however, ketamine-induced ulcerative cystitis is a concern for repeated long-term administration. [62] Qualitative studies are required to better understand the mechanism and thought process changes that lead to therapeutic outcomes. [69]

In post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) is conducting studies in the psychedelic treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. The Phase 2 trials of these studies, conducted in the U.S., Canada, and Israel, consisted of 107 participants who had chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD, and had had PTSD for an average of 17.8 years. Out of the 107 participants, 61% no longer qualified for PTSD after three sessions of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy two months after the treatment. At the 12-month follow-up session, 68% no longer had PTSD. [70] Phase 2 trials conducted between 2004 and 2010 reported an overall remission rate of 66.2% and low rates of adverse effects for subjects with chronic PTSD. [71] In 2017, MAPS and the FDA reached an agreement on the special protocol for phase 3 trials. [72]

Evidence shows that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy versus control shows clinically significant improvement in Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) scores from baseline, with most of the patients no longer meeting the CAPS score for PTSD. [12] Effects of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy can be observed up to 12 months after receiving 2-3 active sessions of moderate to high dose MDMA (75–125 mg). [12]

It is important to note that given the difficulties with appropriate blinding in trials of MDMA- and psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy the results are likely overestimated. [73] [74] Furthermore, there are no superiority or non-inferiority clinical trials comparing MDMA-assisted psychotherapy to already existent evidence-based treatments for PTSD, but given the effects reported in clinical trials of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD there is no reason to believe that this treatment modality is more effective than existent trauma-focused psychological treatments. [75]

In 2024, an FDA advisory panel voted against approving MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD, "raising questions about the credibility of the research being conducted and the safety of those involved in the trials". The FDA advisors voted 9-2 that the available data didn’t show MDMA was effective in treating PTSD, and 10-1 that the benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy did not outweigh the risks. [49]

In depressive and anxiety disorders

In 2019, the FDA approved the use of esketamine for intranasal use for major depressive disorder (MDD) and treatment-resistant depression (TRD), in conjunction with an oral antidepressant. [76]

Also in 2019, the FDA granted "breakthrough therapy" status to psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression and major depressive disorder in order to hasten the process for potential regulatory approval. [77] The designation of "breakthrough therapy" fast-tracks the study of drugs where preliminary clinical evidence shows that they could be substantially more effective than therapies that are already available. [78]

Studies on the clinical effects of ayahuasca have found significant antidepressant and anxiety-reducing effects, leading to calls for further research to overcome methodological limitations in the existing studies. [79]

There is some evidence that psilocybin in combination with MDMA might help with psychiatric disorders, but only when administered in a controlled clinical setting. [80]

There is limited evidence that reductions in suicidality scores can be observed immediately after administration of ayahuasca or psilocybin, observable up to 6 months after administration. [81]

In reducing criminal behavior

In 2017, researchers mainly from the University of Birmingham published research suggesting that psilocybin use is correlated with reduced criminal behavior. The researchers analyzed data from 480,000 U.S. adults collected by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health on their past use of psychedelics, including ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, LSD, mescaline, peyote, San Pedro, and psilocybin mushrooms. While other illicit drugs have been associated with increased criminal behavior, the researchers found that psychedelic substances were instead associated with reduced criminal behavior. Usage of these substances was associated with a 12% reduction in likelihood of assault, 18% reduction in likelihood of other violent crimes, 27% reduction in likelihood of committing larceny and theft, and 22% reduction in likelihood of committing other property crimes. [82] These findings potentially support the use of psychedelic therapy in forensic and clinical settings. [83]

In a prior 2014 study, researchers explored the relationship between recidivism and naturalistic hallucinogens in criminal justice populations with a history of substance use. The results concluded that hallucinogens promoted prosocial behaviors in a population which is typically associated with high recidivism rates. The usage of hallucinogens has been found to reduce supervision failure in ex-convicts. This inherently encourages drug abstinence, including the use of alcohol, resulting in lower rates of recidivism. [84]

A 2018 study found that men who had used psychedelic drugs in the past were less likely to commit violence against their current partners compared to those who had not used these substances. The study suggests that the use of psychedelic drugs in men might be associated with a reduced likelihood of committing violence against intimate partners, potentially due to improved emotion regulation. [85]

A 2022 U.S. study found that use of classic psychedelics was associated with lowered odds of criminal arrest. The research suggests that 7 of the 11 arrest variables were reduced with lifetime psilocybin use. Peyote use was found to reduce the odds of driving under the influence and vehicle theft. Lastly, mescaline use was found to reduce drug possession/sale. No other substances shared a positive relationship with reducing criminal behavior. [86]

Contraindications

Psychedelic therapy is contraindicated for people who: [87] [88] [89]

Methods

Standard psychedelic therapy

The main approach used in the contemporary resurgence of research, often simply called psychedelic therapy, involves the use of moderate-to-high doses of psychedelic drugs. [10] The psychedelic therapy method was initiated by Humphry Osmond and Abram Hoffer (with some influence from Al Hubbard) and replicated by Keith Ditman, [90] [91] and is more closely aligned to transpersonal psychology than to traditional psychoanalysis.[ citation needed ] Most recent research on psychedelic therapy has used psilocybin or ayahuasca. [10]

Patients spend most of the acute period of the drug's activity lying down with eyeshades listening to music selected beforehand and exploring their inner experience. Dialogue with the therapists the drug session(s) but essential during the preparation session before and the integration session afterwards. The therapeutic team normally consists of a man and a woman, who are both present throughout the psychedelic experience. [5] One aspect that occurs in most participants undergoing psychedelic therapy with moderate-to-high doses is transcendental, mystical, or peak experiences. Research has suggested that the strength of these experiences, together with discussion of them soon after in a therapeutic session, could be a major determinant of how great the longer-term effects on symptoms will be. [10]

Some studies of psychedelic therapy have incorporated cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or motivational enhancement therapy (MET). Within a structured CBT intervention and a dose of psilocybin, patients are given the opportunity to experience cognitive and emotional states that are altered. With these psychedelic effects, cognitive reframing of detrimental schemas and self-identity can be modified positively. [92] [93]

In a MET environment, patients are able to reflect on their own behaviors to make changes in problematic manners, such as alcohol use disorder. Additionally, it could potentially enhance motivation to change and decrease possible ambivalence about behavioral changes. Within psychedelic drug sessions, through a reevaluation of the concept of self and reconnecting with core beliefs and values, this can be achieved. [10]

Psychedelic-assisted group psychotherapy can be more cost-efficient, because therapists can split the costs among all participants of the group. [94] [95]

Psycholytic therapy

Psycholytic therapy involves the use of low-to-medium doses of psychedelic drugs, repeatedly at intervals of 1–2 weeks. The therapist is present during the peak of the experience to assist the patient in processing material that arises and to offer support. This general form of therapy was mostly used to treat patients with neurotic and psychosomatic disorders. The name psycholytic therapy was coined by Ronald A. Sandison, [note 3] literally meaning "soul-dissolving", refers to the belief that the therapy can dissolve conflicts in the mind. Psycholytic therapy was historically an important approach to psychedelic psychotherapy in Europe, and was also practiced in the United States by some psychotherapists, including Betty Eisner. In the time since the 1970s, psycholytic therapy has not been a focus of research. [10]

Psychedelic drugs are useful for exploring the subconscious because a conscious sliver of the adult ego usually remains active during the experience. [23] : 196  Patients remain intellectually alert throughout the process and remember their experiences vividly afterward. [23] : 196  In this highly introspective state, patients are actively aware of ego defenses such as projection, denial, and displacement as they react to themselves and their choices. [23] : 196 

The ultimate goal of the therapy is to provide a safe, mutually compassionate context through which the profound and intense reliving of memories can be filtered through the principles of genuine psychotherapy. [97] [98] Aided by the deeply introspective state attained by the patient, the therapist assists him/her in developing a new life framework or personal philosophy that recognizes individual responsibility for change. [23] : 196 

In Germany, Hanscarl Leuner designed a form of psycholytic therapy, which was developed officially but was also used by some socio-politically motivated underground therapists in the 1970s. [99] [100] [101]

In Switzerland, Friedericke Meckel Fisher (trained by Stanislav Grof in Breathwork and Samuel Widmer in group psychedelic sessions) practiced group psycholytic therapy mainly from the early 2000s and until 2015. Meckel Fischer developed her own system of psycholytic therapy which she conducted underground, in group weekend sessions of 15 to 19 people, using medium dosages of psychedelic substances. She added and combined into this psycholytic group work, techniques of her own modified family constellation work, cathartic body work, evocative music, and periods of sharing and feedback within the group. [102]

Other variations

Claudio Naranjo

The Chilean therapist Claudio Naranjo developed a branch of psychedelic therapy that utilized drugs like MDA, MDMA, harmaline, and ibogaine. [23]

Anaclitic therapy

The term anaclitic (from the Ancient Greek "ἀνάκλιτος", anaklitos – "for reclining") refers to primitive, infantile needs and tendencies directed toward a pre-genital love object. Developed by two London psychoanalysts, Joyce Martin and Pauline McCririck, this form of treatment is similar to psycholytic approaches as it is based largely on a psychoanalytic interpretation of abreactions produced by the treatment, but it tends to focus on those experiences in which the patient re-encounters carnal feelings of emotional deprivation and frustration stemming from the infantile needs of their early childhood. As a result, the treatment was developed with the aim to directly fulfill or satisfy those repressed, agonizing cravings for love, physical contact, and other instinctual needs re-lived by the patient. Therefore, the therapist is completely engaged with the subject, as opposed to the traditional detached attitude of the psychoanalyst. With the intense emotional episodes that came with the psychedelic experience, Martin and McCririck aimed to sit in as the "mother" role who would enter into close physical contact with the patients by rocking them, giving them milk from a bottle, etc. [103] [ page needed ]

Hypnodelic therapy

Hypnodelic therapy, as the name suggests, was developed with the goal to maximize the power of hypnotic suggestion by combining it with the psychedelic experience. After training the patient to respond to hypnosis, LSD would be administered, and during the onset phase of the drug the patient would be placed into a state of trance. Levine and Ludwig found the combination of these techniques to be more effective than the use of either of these two components separately. [103] [ page needed ]

Public interest

A resurgence of public interest in psychedelic drug therapy in the 21st century has been driven in part by articles in The New Yorker , The New York Times , and The Wall Street Journal . [61]

Psychedelic tourism

The first article to bring attention to the uses of psychedelic drugs for mental health was titled, "Seeking the Magic Mushroom", written by Robert Gordon Wasson and published in 1957 by TIME magazine. It detailed his experience traveling to Oaxaca, Mexico and taking "magic mushrooms" (psilocybin) within the cultural practices that started the "trip" experience. Since that time there has been growing interest within the United States to travel for these unique psychedelic experiences. The market for psychedelic tourism is currently growing rapidly. While typically the vacation destinations for psychedelics are based in Central and South America there is a rise in western culture taking over their traditional practices. In the Netherlands there are psychedelic society retreats that range from $500–1200 that center on a ceremony in which tourists take magic mushrooms and trip together for around six hours. [104] There are also underground psychedelic "guides" popping up around the United States that include leaders who claim to assist people through their trip similar to shamans in other cultures. An article in The Guardian entitled "Welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground LSD guides" details various styles of guides that can be found within the United States. [105]

Psilocybin therapy

Psilocybin therapy is the use of psilocybin (the psychoactive ingredient in psilocybin mushrooms) in treating a range of mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, addictions, [106] obsessive compulsive disorder, and psychosis. [107]

As of January 1, 2023, psilocybin services facilitator training is available for individuals aged 21 and above who are Oregon residents. [108] To become a psilocybin facilitator, an individual must complete a 120-hour regulated facilitator course, after which they may guide a client through a psilocybin experience. The facilitator may not engage the client in therapy; the therapeutic sessions held before and after the psilocybin experience itself are held by a psychotherapist. [108] As of March 2023, there are currently graduates who can practice as licensed facilitators; however, no licensed service centers are yet operating. [109]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ MDMA and ketamine are not a classical psychedelics but are sometimes discussed alongside classical psychedelics due to similarities in their psychoactive and potentially therapeutic effects. [4]
  2. ↑ The Food and Drug Administration describes the designation of breakthrough therapy as "a process designed to expedite the development and review of drugs that are intended to treat a serious condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over available therapy on a clinically significant endpoint(s)." [16]
  3. ↑ Ronald Sandison first referred to the psycholytic model in 1955 in a speech to the American Psychiatric Association, and used the term 'psycholytic therapy' at the 1960 'European Symposium on Psychotherapy Under LSD-25' at Göttingen University convened by Hanscarl Leuner. In 1964 Leuner formed the European Medical Society for Psycholytic Therapy. [96]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MDMA</span> Psychoactive drug, often called ecstasy

3,4-Methyl​enedioxy​methamphetamine (MDMA), commonly known as ecstasy, and molly, is an empathogen–entactogenic drug with stimulant and minor psychedelic properties. In studies, it has been used alongside psychotherapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorder. The purported pharmacological effects that may be prosocial include altered sensations, increased energy, empathy, and pleasure. When taken by mouth, effects begin in 30 to 45 minutes and last three to six hours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LSD</span> Hallucinogenic drug

Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly known as LSD, is a potent psychedelic drug that intensifies thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception. Often referred to as acid or lucy, LSD can cause mystical, spiritual, or religious experiences. At higher doses, it primarily induces visual and auditory hallucinations. While LSD does not cause physical addiction, it can lead to adverse psychological reactions, such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions. Additionally, it may trigger "flashbacks," also known as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, where individuals experience persistent visual distortions after use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin</span> Chemical compound found in some species of mushrooms

Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), and formerly sold under the brand name Indocybin, is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. Psilocybin is itself biologically inactive but is quickly converted by the body to psilocin, which has mind-altering effects similar, in some aspects, to those of other classical psychedelics. In general, the effects include euphoria, visual and mental hallucinations, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, and perceived spiritual experiences. It can also cause adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychedelic drug</span> Hallucinogenic class of psychoactive drug

Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states and a perceived "expansion of consciousness". Also referred to as classic hallucinogens or serotonergic hallucinogens, the term psychedelic is sometimes used more broadly to include various types of hallucinogens, such as those which are atypical or adjacent to psychedelia like salvia and MDMA, respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bad trip</span> Unpleasant experience triggered by psychoactive drugs

A bad trip is a term describing an acute adverse psychological reaction to effects produced under the influence of psychoactive substances, namely psychedelics. There is no clear definition of what constitutes a bad trip. Additionally, knowledge on the cause of bad trips and who may be vulnerable to such experiences are limited. Existing studies report that possible adverse reactions include, anxiety, panic, depersonalization, ego dissolution, paranoia, as well as physiological symptoms such as dizziness and heart palpitations. However, most studies indicate that the set and setting of substance use influence how people respond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Empathogen</span> Class of psychoactive drugs that produce empathic experiences

Empathogens or entactogens are a class of psychoactive drugs that induce the production of experiences of emotional communion, oneness, relatedness, emotional openness—that is, empathy or sympathy—as particularly observed and reported for experiences with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This class of drug is distinguished from the classes of hallucinogen or psychedelic, and amphetamine or stimulants. Major members of this class include MDMA, MDA, MDEA, MDOH, MBDB, 5-APB, 5-MAPB, 6-APB, 6-MAPB, methylone, mephedrone, GHB, αMT, and αET, MDAI among others. Most entactogens are phenethylamines and amphetamines, although several, such as αMT and αET, are tryptamines. When referring to MDMA and its counterparts, the term MDxx is often used. Entactogens are sometimes incorrectly referred to as hallucinogens or stimulants, although many entactogens such as ecstasy exhibit psychedelic or stimulant properties as well.

The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) is an American nonprofit organization working to raise awareness and understanding of psychedelic substances. MAPS was founded in 1986 by Rick Doblin and is now based in San Jose, California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder</span> Medical condition

Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a non-psychotic disorder in which a person experiences apparent lasting or persistent visual hallucinations or perceptual distortions after using drugs, including but not limited to psychedelics, dissociatives, entactogens, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and SSRIs. Despite being designated as a hallucinogen-specific disorder, the specific contributory role of psychedelic drugs is unknown.

Treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is major depressive disorder in which an affected person does not respond adequately to at least two different antidepressant medications at an adequate dose and for an adequate duration. Inadequate response has most commonly been defined as less than 25% reduction in depressive symptoms following treatment with an antidepressant. Many clinicians and researchers question the construct validity and clinical utility of treatment-resistant depression as currently conceptualized.

The Beckley Foundation is a UK-based think tank and UN-accredited NGO, dedicated to activating global drug policy reform and initiating scientific research into psychoactive substances. The foundation is a charitable trust which collaborates with leading scientific and political institutions worldwide to design and develop research and global policy initiatives. It also investigates consciousness and its modulation from a multidisciplinary perspective, working in collaboration with scientists. The foundation is based at Beckley Park near Oxford, United Kingdom. It was founded in 1998, and is directed by Amanda Feilding, Countess of Wemyss.

Hallucinogens are a large and diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorized as either being psychedelics, dissociatives, or deliriants.

PTSD or post-traumatic stress disorder, is a psychiatric disorder characterised by intrusive thoughts and memories, dreams or flashbacks of the event; avoidance of people, places and activities that remind the individual of the event; ongoing negative beliefs about oneself or the world, mood changes and persistent feelings of anger, guilt or fear; alterations in arousal such as increased irritability, angry outbursts, being hypervigilant, or having difficulty with concentration and sleep.

The Spring Grove Experiment is a series of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) studies performed from 1963 to 1976 on patients with psychotic illnesses at the Spring Grove Clinic in Catonsville, Maryland. These patients were sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health to be part of the first study conducted on the effects of psychedelic drugs on people with schizophrenia. The Spring Grove Experiments were adapted to study the effect of LSD and psychotherapy on patients including alcoholics, heroin addicts, neurotics, and terminally-ill cancer patients. The research done was largely conducted by the members of the Research Unit of Spring Grove State Hospital. Significant contributors to the experiments included Walter Pahnke, Albert Kurland, Sanford Unger, Richard Yensen, Stanislav Grof, William Richards, Francesco Di Leo, and Oliver Lee McCabe. Later, Spring Grove was rebuilt into the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center where studies continued to be performed for the advancement of psychiatric research. This study on LSD is the largest study on psychedelic drugs to date.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychedelic microdosing</span> Drug experimentation technique

Psychedelic microdosing involves consuming sub-threshold doses (microdoses) of serotonergic psychedelic drugs like LSD and psilocybin to potentially enhance creativity, energy, emotional balance, problem-solving abilities, and to address anxiety, depression, and addiction. This practice has gained popularity in the 21st century. A June 2024 report by the RAND Corporation suggests that among adults in the United States reporting the use of psilocybin in the past year, nearly half reported microdosing the last time they used it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin therapy</span> Experimental use of psilocybin to treat anxiety & depression

Psilocybin therapy is the use of psilocybin in treating a range of mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, addictions, obsessive compulsive disorder, and psychosis. It is one of several forms of psychedelic therapy under study. Psilocybin was popularized as a psychedelic recreational drug in the 1970s and was classified as a Schedule I drug by the DEA. Research on psilocybin as a medical treatment was restricted until the 1990s because of the sociocultural fear of dependence on this drug. As of 2022, psilocybin is the most commonly researched psychedelic due to its safety and low potential for abuse and dependence. Clinical trials are being conducted at universities and there is evidence confirming the use of psilocybin in the treatment of depression, PTSD and end of life anxiety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders</span> Association of PTSD and substance dependencies

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can affect about 3.6% of the U.S. population each year, and 6.8% of the U.S. population over a lifetime. 8.4% of people in the U.S. are diagnosed with substance use disorders (SUD). Of those with a diagnosis of PTSD, a co-occurring, or comorbid diagnosis of a SUD is present in 20–35% of that clinical population.

MDMA-assisted psychotherapy is the use of prescribed doses of MDMA as an adjunct to psychotherapy sessions. Research suggests that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including Complex PTSD, might improve treatment effectiveness. In 2017, a Phase II clinical trial led to "breakthrough therapy" designation by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for potential use as a treatment for PTSD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MindMed Inc.</span> Psychedelic medicine biotech company

Mind Medicine (MindMed) Inc., doing business as MindMed, is a New York-based biotechnology company that is currently developing clinical and therapeutic applications for psychedelic and, more broadly, psychoplastogenic drugs.

Psychoplastogens are a group of small molecule drugs that produce rapid and sustained effects on neuronal structure and function, intended to manifest therapeutic benefit after a single administration. Several existing psychoplastogens have been identified and their therapeutic effects demonstrated; several are presently at various stages of development as medications including ketamine, MDMA, scopolamine, and the serotonergic psychedelics, including LSD, psilocin, DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT. Compounds of this sort are being explored as therapeutics for a variety of brain disorders including depression, addiction, and PTSD. The ability to rapidly promote neuronal changes via mechanisms of neuroplasticity was recently discovered as the common therapeutic activity and mechanism of action.

Psychedelic treatments for trauma-related disorders are the use of psychedelic substances, either alone or used in conjunction with psychotherapy, to treat trauma-related disorders. Trauma-related disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), have a lifetime prevalence of around 8% in the US population. However, even though trauma-related disorders can hinder the everyday life of individuals with them, less than 50% of patients who meet criteria for PTSD diagnosis receive proper treatment. Psychotherapy is an effective treatment for trauma-related disorders. A meta-analysis of treatment outcomes has shown that 67% of patients who completed treatment for PTSD no longer met diagnostic criteria for PTSD. For those seeking evidence-based psychotherapy treatment, it is estimated that 22-24% will drop out of their treatment. In addition to psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy (medication) is an option for treating PTSD; however, research has found that pharmacotherapy is only effective for about 59% of patients. Although both forms of treatment are effective for many patients, high dropout rates of psychotherapy and treatment-resistant forms of PTSD have led to increased research in other possible forms of treatment. One such form is the use of psychedelics.

References

  1. ↑ Naulls, Stephen; Bunn, Sarah (2023). "Psychedelic drugs to treat depression". doi:10.58248/RR09.
  2. ↑ https://www.alberta.ca/external/news/health-fs-psychedelic-assisted-therapy.pdf
  3. ↑ "Therapeutic Psychedelics: Psychedelic Medicine in a Therapy Setting". 25 September 2024.
  4. ↑ Nutt D (2019). "Psychedelic drugs-a new era in psychiatry?". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 21 (2): 139–147. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2019.21.2/dnutt. PMC   6787540 . PMID   31636488.
  5. 1 2 3 Reiff CM, Richman EE, Nemeroff CB, Carpenter LL, Widge AS, Rodriguez CI, et al. (May 2020). "Psychedelics and Psychedelic-Assisted Psychotherapy". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 177 (5): 391–410. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010035. PMID   32098487. S2CID   211524704.
  6. 1 2 3 Marks M, Cohen IG (October 2021). "Psychedelic therapy: a roadmap for wider acceptance and utilization". Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1669–1671. doi: 10.1038/s41591-021-01530-3 . PMID   34608331. S2CID   238355863.
  7. ↑ Pilecki B, Luoma JB, Bathje GJ, Rhea J, Narloch VF (April 2021). "Ethical and legal issues in psychedelic harm reduction and integration therapy". Harm Reduction Journal. 18 (1): 40. doi: 10.1186/s12954-021-00489-1 . PMC   8028769 . PMID   33827588.
  8. ↑ Nutt D, Erritzoe D, Carhart-Harris R (April 2020). "Psychedelic Psychiatry's Brave New World". Cell. 181 (1): 24–28. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.020 . PMID   32243793. S2CID   214753833.
  9. 1 2 Johnson M, Richards W, Griffiths R (August 2008). "Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 22 (6): 603–620. doi:10.1177/0269881108093587. PMC   3056407 . PMID   18593734.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Garcia-Romeu A, Richards WA (August 2018). "Current perspectives on psychedelic therapy: use of serotonergic hallucinogens in clinical interventions". International Review of Psychiatry. 30 (4): 291–316. doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1486289. PMID   30422079. S2CID   53291327.
  11. 1 2 3 Bender D, Hellerstein DJ (January 2022). "Assessing the risk-benefit profile of classical psychedelics: a clinical review of second-wave psychedelic research". Psychopharmacology. 239 (6): 1907–1932. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06049-6. PMID   35022823. S2CID   245906937.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Smith KW, Sicignano DJ, Hernandez AV, White CM (April 2022). "MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 62 (4): 463–471. doi:10.1002/jcph.1995. PMID   34708874. S2CID   240072663.
  13. ↑ Romeo B, Karila L, Martelli C, Benyamina A (October 2020). "Efficacy of psychedelic treatments on depressive symptoms: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 34 (10): 1079–1085. doi:10.1177/0269881120919957. PMID   32448048. S2CID   218873949.
  14. ↑ Schimmel N, Breeksema JJ, Smith-Apeldoorn SY, Veraart J, van den Brink W, Schoevers RA (January 2022). "Psychedelics for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and existential distress in patients with a terminal illness: a systematic review". Psychopharmacology. 239 (1): 15–33. doi:10.1007/s00213-021-06027-y. PMID   34812901. S2CID   244490236.
  15. ↑ Hoskins MD, Sinnerton R, Nakamura A, Underwood JF, Slater A, Lewis C, et al. (January 2021). "Pharmacological-assisted Psychotherapy for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis". European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 12 (1): 1853379. doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1853379. PMC   7874936 . PMID   33680344.
  16. ↑ "Breakthrough Therapy". United States Food and Drug Administration. 1 April 2018. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
  17. ↑ Vermetten E, Yehuda R (January 2020). "MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A promising novel approach to treatment". Neuropsychopharmacology. 45 (1): 231–232. doi:10.1038/s41386-019-0482-9. PMC   6879520 . PMID   31455855.
  18. ↑ Guerra-Doce E (2 January 2015). "Psychoactive Substances in Prehistoric Times: Examining the Archaeological Evidence". Time and Mind. 8 (1): 91–112. doi:10.1080/1751696X.2014.993244. S2CID   161528331.
  19. ↑ "9 Mind-Altering Plants". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  20. ↑ Winkelman M (2007). "Shamanic Guidelines for Psychedelic Medicine" . In Winkelman M, Roberts TB (eds.). Psychedelic medicine: new evidence for hallucinogenic substances as treatments. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. ISBN   978-0-275-99023-7.
  21. ↑ "LSD Discovery-Albert Hofmann + Hofmann at 99 years". Skeptically.org. Archived from the original on January 8, 2009. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  22. ↑ Novak SJ (March 1997). "LSD before Leary. Sidney Cohen's critique of 1950s psychedelic drug research". Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences. 88 (1): 87–110. doi:10.1086/383628. PMID   9154737. S2CID   25764062.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Grinspoon L, Bakalar JB (1997). "The Psychedelic Drug Therapies". Psychedelic Drugs Reconsidered . A Drug Policy Classic Reprint from the Lindesmith Center, 1997. ISBN   978-0-9641568-5-2.
  24. ↑ Dyck E (June 2005). "Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 50 (7): 381–388. doi: 10.1177/070674370505000703 . PMID   16086535.
  25. 1 2 Leary T, Metzner R, Presnell M, Weil G, Schwitzgebel R, Kinne S (1965). "A new behavior change program using psilocybin". Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice. 2 (2): 61–72. doi:10.1037/h0088612.
  26. ↑ Bonson KR (February 2018). "Regulation of human research with LSD in the United States (1949-1987)". Psychopharmacology. 235 (2): 591–604. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4777-4. PMID   29147729. S2CID   3368639.
  27. ↑ Organization and Coordination of Federal Drug Research and Regulatory Programs: LSD [electronic resource]: Hearings before the United States Senate Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization, Eighty-Ninth Congress, second session. U.S. Government Publication Office. 22 May 1966. p. 63.
  28. 1 2 Dahlberg CC, Mechaneck R, Feldstein S (November 1968). "LSD research: the impact of lay publicity". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 125 (5): 685–689. doi:10.1176/ajp.125.5.685. PMID   5683460.
  29. ↑ "Drug Scheduling". dea.gov. Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  30. ↑ Passie T (2018-04-11). "The early use of MDMA ('Ecstasy') in psychotherapy (1977–1985)". Drug Science, Policy and Law . 4: 205032451876744. doi: 10.1177/2050324518767442 . ISSN   2050-3245.
  31. ↑ Stolaroff M (1997). The Secret Chief: Conversations with a pioneer of the underground psychedelic therapy movement . Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. ISBN   978-0-9660019-1-4.
  32. 1 2 3 "Human Psychedelic Research: A Historical And Sociological Analysis". MAPS . Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  33. 1 2 Tupper KW, Wood E, Yensen R, Johnson MW (October 2015). "Psychedelic medicine: a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm". CMAJ. 187 (14): 1054–1059. doi:10.1503/cmaj.141124. PMC   4592297 . PMID   26350908.
  34. ↑ Amoroso T (2015). "The Psychopharmacology of ±3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its Role in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 47 (5): 337–344. doi:10.1080/02791072.2015.1094156. PMID   26579955. S2CID   37980113.
  35. ↑ Saplakoglu Y (2019-11-25). "FDA Calls Psychedelic Psilocybin a 'Breakthrough Therapy' for Severe Depression". livescience.com. Retrieved 2020-09-11.
  36. ↑ "Centre for Psychedelic Research". Imperial College London. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  37. ↑ "Centre for Psychedelic Research". Psychedelic Science Review. 2018-12-26. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  38. ↑ Anwar Y (2020-09-14). "UC Berkeley launches new center for psychedelic science and education". Berkeley News. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  39. ↑ "Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research". Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  40. ↑ Lewis T (2020-01-16). "Johns Hopkins Scientists Give Psychedelics the Serious Treatment". Scientific American. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  41. ↑ "Center to Study Psychedelics for Treatment of Depression, Anxiety". Dell Medical School. 2021-12-16. Retrieved 2022-01-15.
  42. ↑ "Mount Sinai Health System Launches Center for Psychedelic Research". Mount Sinai Health System. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  43. ↑ Booker C (2021-07-29). "$40m psychedelic medicine institute launches in Melbourne". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2021-08-11.
  44. ↑ "VIU launches collaborative psychedelic research centre". news.viu.ca. Vancouver Island University. 2023-03-02. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  45. ↑ "Harvard launches new Study of Psychedelics in Society and Culture". Harvard Gazette. 2023-10-16. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  46. ↑ Barnett, Brian S.; Arakelian, Miranda; Beebe, David; Ontko, Jared; Riegal, Connor; Siu, Willie O.; Weleff, Jeremy; Pope, Harrison G. (2023-09-19). "American Psychiatrists' Opinions About Classic Hallucinogens and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications: A 7-Year Follow-Up Survey". Psychedelic Medicine. 2: 1–9. doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0036. ISSN   2831-4425.
  47. ↑ Barnett, Brian S.; Siu, Willie O.; Pope, Harrison G. (June 2018). "A Survey of American Psychiatrists' Attitudes Toward Classic Hallucinogens". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 206 (6): 476–480. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000828. ISSN   1539-736X. PMID   29781894.
  48. ↑ Shepherd, Tory (2023-02-03). "Australia to allow prescription of MDMA and psilocybin for treatment-resistant mental illnesses". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  49. 1 2 Sinclair, Sarah. "Why FDA Panel Rejected MDMA Therapy—And What's Next For Psychedelic Medicine". Forbes. Retrieved 2024-10-14.
  50. ↑ Garcia-Romeu A, Kersgaard B, Addy PH (August 2016). "Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 24 (4): 229–268. doi:10.1037/pha0000084. PMC   5001686 . PMID   27454674.
  51. ↑ Golden TL, Magsamen S, Sandu CC, Lin S, Roebuck GM, Shi KM, Barrett FS (2022). Barrett FS, Preller KH (eds.). "Effects of Setting on Psychedelic Experiences, Therapies, and Outcomes: A Rapid Scoping Review of the Literature". Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. 56. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 35–70. doi:10.1007/7854_2021_298. ISBN   978-3-031-12183-8. PMID   35138585. S2CID   246679011.
  52. ↑ Hartigan, Francis (2001). Bill Wilson. St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 205–208. ISBN   9780312283919.
  53. ↑ Mangini M (1998). "Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 30 (4): 381–418. doi:10.1080/02791072.1998.10399714. PMID   9924844.
  54. ↑ Krebs TS, Johansen PØ (July 2012). "Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 26 (7): 994–1002. doi:10.1177/0269881112439253. PMID   22406913. S2CID   10677273.
  55. 1 2 Köck P, Froelich K, Walter M, Lang U, Dürsteler KM (July 2022). "A systematic literature review of clinical trials and therapeutic applications of ibogaine". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 138: 108717. doi: 10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108717 . PMID   35012793. S2CID   245597268.
  56. ↑ Heink A, Katsikas S, Lange-Altman T (2017-05-27). "Examination of the Phenomenology of the Ibogaine Treatment Experience: Role of Altered States of Consciousness and Psychedelic Experiences". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 49 (3): 201–208. doi:10.1080/02791072.2017.1290855. PMID   28266890. S2CID   25328910.
  57. ↑ dos Santos RG, Bouso JC, Hallak JE (April 2017). "The antiaddictive effects of ibogaine: A systematic literature review of human studies". Journal of Psychedelic Studies. 1 (1): 20–28. doi: 10.1556/2054.01.2016.001 . ISSN   2559-9283.
  58. ↑ Litjens RP, Brunt TM (2016-04-20). "How toxic is ibogaine?". Clinical Toxicology. 54 (4): 297–302. doi:10.3109/15563650.2016.1138226. PMID   26807959. S2CID   7026570.
  59. ↑ Sharma R, Batchelor R, Sin J (March 2023). "Psychedelic Treatments for Substance Use Disorder and Substance Misuse: A Mixed Methods Systematic Review". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 55 (5): 612–630. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2190319 . PMID   36933948. S2CID   257623319.
  60. ↑ Calleja-Conde, Javier; Morales-García, Jose Angel; Echeverry-Alzate, Víctor; Bühler, Kora Mareen; Giné, Elena; López-Moreno, Jose Antonio (November 2022). "Classic psychedelics and alcohol use disorders: A systematic review of human and animal studies". Addiction Biology. 27 (6): e13229. doi:10.1111/adb.13229. ISSN   1355-6215. PMC   9541961 . PMID   36301215.
  61. 1 2 3 Byock I (April 2018). "Taking Psychedelics Seriously". Journal of Palliative Medicine. 21 (4): 417–421. doi:10.1089/jpm.2017.0684. PMC   5867510 . PMID   29356590.
  62. 1 2 3 Boston P, Bruce A, Schreiber R (March 2011). "Existential suffering in the palliative care setting: an integrated literature review". Journal of Pain and Symptom Management. 41 (3): 604–618. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2010.05.010 . PMID   21145202.
  63. ↑ Moreton SG, Szalla L, Menzies RE, Arena AF (January 2020). "Embedding existential psychology within psychedelic science: reduced death anxiety as a mediator of the therapeutic effects of psychedelics". Psychopharmacology. 237 (1): 21–32. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05391-0. PMID   31784805. S2CID   208337549.
  64. 1 2 Nichols DE, Johnson MW, Nichols CD (February 2017). "Psychedelics as Medicines: An Emerging New Paradigm". Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 101 (2): 209–219. doi:10.1002/cpt.557. PMID   28019026. S2CID   25861735.
  65. 1 2 3 Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, Umbricht A, Richards WA, Richards BD, et al. (December 2016). "Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 30 (12): 1181–1197. doi:10.1177/0269881116675513. PMC   5367557 . PMID   27909165.
  66. 1 2 3 4 Ross S, Bossis A, Guss J, Agin-Liebes G, Malone T, Cohen B, et al. (December 2016). "Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 30 (12): 1165–1180. doi:10.1177/0269881116675512. PMC   5367551 . PMID   27909164.
  67. ↑ Barrett FS, Johnson MW, Griffiths RR (November 2015). "Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (11): 1182–1190. doi:10.1177/0269881115609019. PMC   5203697 . PMID   26442957.
  68. ↑ Bauereiß N, Obermaier S, Özünal SE, Baumeister H (November 2018). "Effects of existential interventions on spiritual, psychological, and physical well-being in adult patients with cancer: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Psycho-Oncology. 27 (11): 2531–2545. doi: 10.1002/pon.4829 . PMID   29958339. S2CID   49613924.
  69. ↑ Breeksema JJ, Niemeijer AR, Krediet E, Vermetten E, Schoevers RA (September 2020). "Psychedelic Treatments for Psychiatric Disorders: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Patient Experiences in Qualitative Studies". CNS Drugs. 34 (9): 925–946. doi:10.1007/s40263-020-00748-y. PMC   7447679 . PMID   32803732.
  70. ↑ "A Phase 3 Program of MDMA-Assisted Therapy for the Treatment of Severe Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)". MAPS. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
  71. ↑ Thal SB, Lommen MJ (2018). "Current Perspective on MDMA-Assisted Psychotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy. 48 (2): 99–108. doi:10.1007/s10879-017-9379-2. PMC   5917000 . PMID   29720767.
  72. ↑ "Phase 3 Trial Program: MDMA-Assisted Therapy for PTSD". Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies - MAPS. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
  73. ↑ Muthukumaraswamy SD, Forsyth A, Lumley T (September 2021). "Blinding and expectancy confounds in psychedelic randomized controlled trials". Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology. 14 (9): 1133–1152. doi:10.1080/17512433.2021.1933434. PMID   34038314. S2CID   235215630.
  74. ↑ Burke MJ, Blumberger DM (October 2021). "Caution at psychiatry's psychedelic frontier". Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1687–1688. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01524-1. PMID   34635858. S2CID   238635462.
  75. ↑ Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID   34635857. S2CID   238636360.
  76. ↑ Bahr R, Lopez A, Rey JA (June 2019). "Intranasal Esketamine (Spravato) for Use in Treatment-Resistant Depression In Conjunction With an Oral Antidepressant". P & T. 44 (6): 340–375. PMC   6534172 . PMID   31160868.
  77. ↑ "FDA Calls Psychedelic Psilocybin a 'Breakthrough Therapy' for Severe Depression". Livescience.com. 25 November 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  78. ↑ "Breakthrough Therapy". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 3 November 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
  79. ↑ Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G (2019). "Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness". Current Neuropharmacology. 17 (2): 108–128. doi: 10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902 . PMC   6343205 . PMID   29366418.
  80. ↑ Kisely S, Connor M, Somogyi AA, Siskind D (March 2023). "A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the effect of psilocybin and methylenedioxymethamphetamine on mental, behavioural or developmental disorders". Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 57 (3): 362–378. doi:10.1177/00048674221083868. PMID   35285280. S2CID   247421768. In conclusion, MDMA and psilocybin show potential as therapeutic agents in highly selected populations when administered in closely supervised settings with intensive support. Evidence appears strongest for MDMA. By contrast, randomised findings for psilocybin are largely limited to short-term follow-up data prior to cross-over
  81. ↑ Zeifman RJ, Yu D, Singhal N, Wang G, Nayak SM, Weissman CR (January 2022). "Decreases in Suicidality Following Psychedelic Therapy: A Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data Across Clinical Trials". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 83 (2). doi:10.4088/JCP.21r14057. PMID   35044730. S2CID   245949616.
  82. ↑ Hendricks PS, Crawford MS, Cropsey KL, Copes H, Sweat NW, Walsh Z, Pavela G (January 2018). "The relationships of classic psychedelic use with criminal behavior in the United States adult population". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 32 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1177/0269881117735685. PMID   29039233. S2CID   32430532.
  83. ↑ "Study suggests psychedelic drugs could reduce criminal behavior". UAB News. Retrieved 2023-04-04.
  84. ↑ Hendricks PS, Clark CB, Johnson MW, Fontaine KR, Cropsey KL (January 2014). "Hallucinogen use predicts reduced recidivism among substance-involved offenders under community corrections supervision". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (1): 62–66. doi:10.1177/0269881113513851. PMID   24399338. S2CID   22654131.
  85. ↑ Dolan, Eric W. (2018-06-08). "Men who have used psychedelics are roughly half as likely to commit intimate partner violence". Psypost - Psychology News. Retrieved 2023-10-10.
  86. ↑ Jones GM, Nock MK (January 2022). "Psilocybin use is associated with lowered odds of crime arrests in US adults: A replication and extension". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 36 (1): 66–73. doi:10.1177/02698811211058933. PMID   35090364. S2CID   246387248.
  87. ↑ "Medical Contraindications to "Classic" Psychedelic Use". psychedelics.ucsf.edu. Retrieved 2023-01-30.
  88. ↑ Frecska E (2007). "Therapeutic guidelines: dangers and contra-indications in therapeutic applications of hallucinogens". Psychedelic Medicine. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.2364.8888.
  89. ↑ Smith DG (11 February 2023). "Psychedelics are a promising therapy, but they can be dangerous for some". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 February 2023.
  90. ↑ Eisner B (1997). "Set, setting, and matrix". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 29 (2): 213–216. doi:10.1080/02791072.1997.10400190. PMID   9250949.
  91. ↑ Michael P (15 May 2018). How to Change Your Mind. Penguin. p. 164. ISBN   9780525558941. But though this mode of therapy would become closely identified with Osmond and Hoffer, they themselves credited someone else for critical elements of its design, a man of considerable mystery with no formal training as a scientist or therapist: Al Hubbard. A treatment space decorated to feel more like a home than a hospital came to be known as a Hubbard Room, and at least one early psychedelic researcher told me that this whole therapeutic regime, which is now the norm, should by all rights be known as "the Hubbard method". Yet Al Hubbard, a.k.a. "Captain Trips" and "the Johnny Appleseed of LSD", is not the kind of intellectual forebear anyone doing serious psychedelic science today is eager to acknowledge, much less celebrate.
  92. ↑ Van Eyghen H (2023). "Psychedelics and the Entropic Brain Beyond the Self". The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion. 33 (4): 277–293. doi: 10.1080/10508619.2023.2192078 .
  93. ↑ Letheby C (2020). Philosophy of psychedelics. Oxford University Press.
  94. ↑ Ponomarenko, Polina; Seragnoli, Federico; Calder, Abigail; Oehen, Peter; Hasler, Gregor (2023-02-28). "Can psychedelics enhance group psychotherapy? A discussion on the therapeutic factors". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 37 (7): 660–678. doi:10.1177/02698811231155117. ISSN   0269-8811. PMC   10350738 . PMID   36855289.
  95. ↑ Newson, Martha; Haslam, S. Alexander; Haslam, Catherine; Cruwys, Tegan; Roseman, Leor (2024-09-09). "Social identity processes as a vehicle for therapeutic success in psychedelic treatment". Nature Mental Health. 2 (9): 1010–1017. doi:10.1038/s44220-024-00302-5. ISSN   2731-6076.
  96. ↑ Sessa B (2016). "The History of Psychedelics in Medicine". In von Heyden M, Jungaberle H, Majić T (eds.). Handbuch Psychoaktive Substanzen. Springer Reference Psychologie. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 1–26. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55214-4_96-1. ISBN   978-3-642-55214-4. S2CID   151782491.
  97. ↑ Roberts G (2019-03-18). "Climax: Cinema Psychotherapy". Medium. Retrieved 2021-05-05.
  98. ↑ Passie T, Guss J, Krähenmann R (2022-12-02). "Lower-dose psycholytic therapy - A neglected approach". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13: 1020505. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1020505 . PMC   9755513 . PMID   36532196.
  99. ↑ Leuner H (September 1972). "Standpunkte". Kursbuch 29. Das Elend mit der Psyche. II Psychoanalyse (in German). Berlin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  100. ↑ Leuner H. "Alternative Szene" (in German).
  101. ↑ Jungaberle H, Gasser P, Weinhold J, Verres R (2008). Therapie mit psychoaktiven Substanzen: Praxis und Kritik der Psychotherapie mit LSD, Psilocybin und MDMA (in German) (1st ed.). Bern: Hans Huber. ISBN   978-3-456-84606-4.
  102. ↑ Meckel Fischer F (2015). Therapy with Substance: Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty first century (1st ed.). Great Britain: Aeon Books Ltd. ISBN   978-1-913274-30-6.
  103. 1 2 Grof S (2001). LSD Psychotherapy (3rd ed.). MAPS. ISBN   978-0-9660019-4-5.
  104. ↑ "Psychedelic tourism is a niche but growing market". The Economist. ISSN   0013-0613 . Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  105. ↑ Dunne C (2018-12-06). "Welcome to the trip of your life: the rise of underground LSD guides". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  106. ↑ Van Court, R.C.; Wiseman, M.S.; Meyer, K.W.; Ballhorn, D.J.; Amses, K.R.; Slot, J.C.; Dentinger, B.T.M.; Garibay-Orijel, R.; Uehling, J.K. (April 2022). "Diversity, biology, and history of psilocybin-containing fungi: Suggestions for research and technological development". Fungal Biology. 126 (4): 308–319. Bibcode:2022FunB..126..308V. doi: 10.1016/j.funbio.2022.01.003 . PMID   35314062.
  107. ↑ Geiger, Haden A.; Wurst, Madeline G.; Daniels, R. Nathan (2018-10-17). "DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Psilocybin". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 9 (10): 2438–2447. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00186. ISSN   1948-7193. PMID   29956917. S2CID   49591766.
  108. 1 2 "Oregon's Legal Framework for Psilocybin Services | ATMA". ATMA Journey Centers. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  109. ↑ "As Oregon's first psilocybin facilitators graduate, an untested industry awaits". oregonlive. 2023-03-14. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.