Date rape drug

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A date rape drug is any drug that incapacitates another person and renders that person vulnerable to sexual assault, including rape. The substances are associated with date rape because of reported incidents of their use in the context of two people dating, during which the victim is sexually assaulted or raped or suffers other harm. However, substances have also been exploited during retreats, for example ayahuasca retreats. The substances are not exclusively used to perpetrate sexual assault or rape, but are the properties or side-effects of substances normally used for personal recreation or medical purposes. One of the most common incapacitating agents for date rape is alcohol, administered either surreptitiously [1] or consumed voluntarily, [2] rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent.

Contents

Frequency

No comprehensive data exists on the frequency of drug-facilitated sexual assaults involving the use of surreptitious drug administration, due to the report rate of assaults and because rape victims who do report are often either never tested for these drugs, are tested for the wrong ones, or the tests are administered after the drug has been metabolized and left their body. [3]

A 1999 study of 1,179 urine specimens from victims of suspected drug-facilitated sexual assaults in 49 American states found six (0.5%) positive for Rohypnol, 97 (8%) positive for other benzodiazepines, 48 (4.1%) positive for GHB, 451 (38%) positive for alcohol and 468 (40%) negative for any of the drugs searched for. [4] A similar study of 2,003 urine samples of victims of suspected drug-facilitated sexual assaults found less than 2% tested positive for Rohypnol or GHB. [5] The samples used in these studies could only be verified as having been submitted within a 72-hour time frame or a 48-hour time frame.

A three-year study in the UK detected sedatives or disinhibiting drugs that victims said they had not voluntarily taken in the urine of two percent of suspected drug-facilitated sexual assault victims. In 65% of the 1,014 cases included in this study, testing could not be conducted within a time frame that would allow detection of GHB. [6] A 2009 Australian study found that of 97 instances of patients admitted to hospital believing their drinks might have been spiked, illicit drugs were detected in 28% of samples, and nine cases were identified as "plausible drink spiking cases". This study defined a "plausible drink spiking case" in such a way that cases where (a) patients believed that their drink had been spiked, and (b) lab tests showed agents that patients said they had not ingested would still be ruled out as plausible if the patient did not also (c) exhibit "signs and symptoms" that were considered "consistent with agents detected by laboratory screening." [7]

Documented routes of administration

Oral

In slang, a Mickey Finn (or simply a Mickey) is a drink laced with a psychoactive drug or incapacitating agent (especially chloral hydrate) given to someone without their knowledge, with intent to incapacitate them. Serving someone a "Mickey" is most commonly referred to as "slipping someone a mickey". Drink spiking is common practice by predators at drinking establishments who often lace alcoholic drinks with sedative drugs.[ citation needed ]

Syringe injection

Multiple reports of needle spiking were reported by young women in the United Kingdom from 2021 onwards. [8] [9] On 27 October 2021, the Garda Síochána (Irish police) began an investigation after a woman was spiked with a needle in a Dublin nightclub. [10]

Documented date rape drugs

Depressants

Alcohol, consumed voluntarily, is the most commonly used drug involved in sexual assaults. Since the mid-1990s, the media and researchers have also documented an increased use of drugs such as flunitrazepam and ketamine to facilitate sexual assaults in the context of dating. [ citation needed ] Other drugs that have been used include hypnotics such as zopiclone, methaqualone, and the widely available zolpidem (Ambien); sedatives such as neuroleptics (anti-psychotics), chloral hydrate, and some histamine H1 antagonists; common recreational drugs such as ethanol, cocaine, and less common anticholinergics, barbiturates, opioids, PCP, scopolamine; [11] nasal spray ingredient oxymetazoline; [12] [13] [14] and certain GABAergics like GHB. Gamma-Butyrolactone is also often referred to as being used in sexual assaults. [15]

Alcohol

Table from the 2010 DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated alcohol the most harmful drug overall, and the only drug more harmful to others than to the users themselves. HarmCausedByDrugsTable.svg
Table from the 2010 DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated alcohol the most harmful drug overall, and the only drug more harmful to others than to the users themselves.

Researchers agree that the drug most commonly involved in drug-facilitated sexual assaults is alcohol, [2] which the victim has consumed voluntarily in most cases.[ citation needed ] In most jurisdictions, alcohol is legal and readily available and is used in the majority of sexual assaults. [12] Many perpetrators use alcohol because their victims often drink it willingly, and can be encouraged to drink enough to lose inhibitions or consciousness. Sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most jurisdictions and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience", assaulting a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much. [17]

Alcohol consumption is known to have effects on sexual behavior and aggression. During social interactions, alcohol consumption causes more biased appraisal of a partner's sexual motives while impairing communication about and enhancing misperception of sexual intentions, effects exacerbated by peer influence about how to behave when drinking. [18] The effects of alcohol at the point of forced sex commonly include an impaired ability to rectify misperceptions and a diminished ability to resist sexual advances and aggressive sexual behavior. [18]

The Blade released a special report, "The Making of an Epidemic," criticizing a study conducted in the 1990s that concluded that 55% of rape victims had been intoxicated. According to The Blade, the study specifically ignored an Ohio statute that excluded "situations where a person plies his intended partner with drink or drugs in hopes that lowered inhibition might lead to a liaison." The author of the study later admitted that the wording of the survey had been ambiguous. [19]

Alcohol in campus rape

The increase of sexual assaults on college campuses has been attributed to the social expectations of students to participate in alcohol consumption; social norm dictates that students drink heavily and engage in casual sex. [20]

Various studies have concluded the following:

  • On average, at least 50% of college sexual assault cases are associated with alcohol use. [18]
  • On college campuses, 74% of the perpetrators and 55% of the victims had been drinking alcohol. [18]
  • In 2002, more than 70,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 were victims of alcohol-related sexual assault in the U.S. [21] [ failed verification ]
  • In violent incidents recorded by the police in which alcohol was a factor, about 9% of the offenders and nearly 14% of the victims were under age 21. [21] [ failed verification ]

Z-drugs

Zolpidem

Zolpidem (Ambien) is one of the most common date-rape drugs according to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. [22] [ dubious – discuss ]

Benzodiazepines

Benzodiazepines (tranquilizers), such as Valium, Librium, Klonopin, Xanax, and Ativan, are prescribed to treat anxiety, panic attacks, insomnia, and several other conditions, and are also frequently used recreationally. Benzodiazepines are often used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults, with the most notorious being flunitrazepam (chemical name) or Rohypnol (proprietary or brand name), also known as "roofies," "rope," and "roaches." [23] [24]

The benzodiazepines midazolam and temazepam were the two most common benzodiazepines utilized for date rape. [25]

Benzodiazepines can be detected in urine through the use of drug tests administered by medical officials or sold at pharmacies and performed at home. Most tests will detect benzodiazepines for a maximum of 72 hours after it was taken. Most general benzodiazepine detection tests will not detect Rohypnol: the drug requires a test specifically designed for that purpose. One new process can detect a 2 mg dose of Rohypnol for up to 28 days post-ingestion. [13] [26] Other tests for Rohypnol include blood and hair tests. Because the most commonly used drug tests often yield false negatives for Rohypnol, experts recommend use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. [1] [5] [27]

Rohypnol

Rohypnol (Flunitrazepam) pills are typically small and dissolve readily into drinks without significantly affecting their taste or color, allowing the pills to be easily administered surreptitiously to victims. [28]

In one 2002 survey of 53 women who used Rohypnol recreationally, 10% said they were physically or sexually assaulted while under its influence. [5] If enough of the drug is taken, a person may experience a state of automatism or dissociation. After the drug wears off, users may find themselves unable to remember what happened while under its influence (anterograde amnesia), and feeling woozy, hung-over, confused, dizzy, sluggish and uncoordinated, often with an upset stomach. They may also have some difficulty moving their limbs normally. [1] [5] [27]

Rohypnol is believed to be commonly used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults in the United States, the United Kingdom, and throughout Europe, Asia and South America. [29] Although Rohypnol's use in drug-facilitated sexual assaults has been covered extensively in the news media, researchers disagree about how common such use actually is. Law enforcement manuals describe it as one of the drugs most commonly implicated in drug-facilitated sexual assaults. [1] Despite having a long half-life (18–28 hours) an incorrect belief is that Rohypnol is undetectable 12 hours after administration which may result in victims failing to get a blood or urine test the following day.

GHB

Gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) is a central nervous system depressant. It has no odor and tastes salty, [30] but the taste can be masked when mixed in a drink. [31]

GHB is used recreationally to stimulate euphoria, to increase sociability, to promote libido and lower inhibitions. [32] It is sold under names such as Rufies, Liquid E and Liquid X. It is usually taken orally, by the capful or teaspoon. [33]

From 1996 to 1999, 22 reports of GHB being used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults were made to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration. A 26-month study of 1,179 urine samples from suspected drug-facilitated sexual assaults across the United States found 4% positive for GHB. [32] The National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC) says that in the United States GHB had surpassed Rohypnol as the substance most commonly used in drug-facilitated sexual assaults, likely because GHB is much more easily available, cheaper and leaves the body more quickly. [32] [34] GHB is only detectable in urine for six to twelve hours after ingestion. [34]

Psychedelics

Ayahuasca

Ayahuasca has been used in some ayahuasca retreats to sexually abuse ayahuasca tourists. [35] [36] [37] [38]

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

MDMA is an empathogen. Although it is not sedating like other date rape drugs, it has been used to facilitate sexual assault. [39] [40] It can increase disinhibition and sexual desire. [41] Often Ecstasy is combined with amphetamines or other drugs.

Detection

Several devices have, in recent years, been developed to detect the presence of date rape drugs, many designed with discreetness in mind. One, developed by two Tel Aviv University researchers, is a sensor for gamma-hydroxybutyric acid and ketamine, but appears similar to a straw, and sends a text to the user's phone to warn them. [42] In 2022, another "Smart Straw" product was designed by students at the University of Nantes: a non-electronic stainless steel straw including a ring that would change colors in the presence of GHB, Rohypnol, or ketamine. [43] [44] Another, designed by four North Carolina State University students, is a nail polish that changes color in the presence of date rape drugs. [45] Several others have also been designed with these color-changing mechanisms in mind. [46] [47]

Media coverage

There were three stories in the media about Rohypnol in 1993, 25 in 1994, and 854 in 1996.[ citation needed ] In early 1996, Newsweek magazine published "Roofies: The date-rape drug" which ended with the line "Don't take your eyes off your drink."[ citation needed ] That summer, researchers[ who? ] say[ failed verification ] all major American urban and regional newspapers covered date rape drugs, with headlines such as "Crackdown sought on date rape drug" ( Los Angeles Times ) [48] and "Drug zaps memory of rape victims" ( San Francisco Chronicle ). [49] In 1997 and 1998, the date rape drug story received extensive coverage on CNN, ABC's 20/20 and Primetime Live , as well as The Oprah Winfrey Show . Women were advised not to drink from punch bowls, not to leave a drink unattended and keeping drinks with them at all times (including when going to a dance or the bathroom, or using the phone), not to try new drinks, not to share drinks, not to drink anything with an unusual taste or appearance, take their own drinks to parties, drink nothing opened by another person, and if they feel sick to go with someone they know and not alone or with someone they just met or do not know.[ citation needed ]

News media has been criticized for overstating the threat of drug-facilitated sexual assault, for providing "how to" material for potential date rapists and for advocating "grossly excessive protective measures for women, particularly in coverage between 1996 and 1998. [50] [51] Law enforcement representatives and feminists have also been criticized for supporting the overstatements for their own purposes. [52]

Craig Webber states that this extensive coverage has created or amplified a moral panic [53] rooted in societal anxieties about rape, hedonism and the increased freedoms of women in modern culture. Goode et al. say it has given a powerful added incentive for the suppression of party drugs, [51] has inappropriately undermined the long-established argument that recreational drug use is purely a consensual and victimless crime. By shining a spotlight on premeditated criminal behavior, Philip Jenkins states that it has relieved the culture from having to explore and evaluate more nuanced forms of male sexual aggression towards people, such as those displayed in date rapes that were not facilitated by the surreptitious administration of drugs. [54]

For similar moral panics around social tensions manifesting via discussion of drugs and sex crime, researchers point to the opium scare of the late 19th century, in which "sinister Chinese" were said to use opium to coerce white women into sexual slavery. Similarly, in the Progressive Era, a persistent urban legend told of white middle-class women being surreptitiously drugged, abducted, and sold into sexual slavery to Latin American brothels. [55] [56] This analysis does not contradict instances when date rape drugs are used or sexual trafficking occurs; its focus is on actual prevalence of certain crimes relative to media coverage of it.[ editorializing ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism</span> Problematic excessive alcohol consumption

Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide as of 2016. The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are sometimes considered stigmatizing and to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as alcohol use disorder or alcohol dependence are often used instead in a clinical context.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flunitrazepam</span> Benzodiazepine sedative

Flunitrazepam, sold under the brand name Rohypnol among others, is a benzodiazepine used to treat severe insomnia and assist with anesthesia. As with other hypnotics, flunitrazepam has been advised to be prescribed only for short-term use or by those with chronic insomnia on an occasional basis.

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid Chemical compound

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid, also known as gamma-hydroxybutyric acid, GHB, or 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter and a depressant drug. It is a precursor to GABA, glutamate, and glycine in certain brain areas. It acts on the GHB receptor and is a weak agonist at the GABAB receptor. GHB has been used in the medical setting as a general anesthetic and as treatment for cataplexy, narcolepsy, and alcoholism. The substance is also used illicitly for various reasons, including as a performance-enhancing drug, date rape drug, and as a recreational drug.

Incapacitating agent is a chemical or biological agent which renders a person unable to harm themselves or others, regardless of consciousness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Club drug</span> Category of recreational drugs

Club drugs, also called rave drugs or party drugs, are a loosely defined category of recreational drugs which are associated with discothèques in the 1970s and nightclubs, dance clubs, electronic dance music (EDM) parties, and raves in the 1980s to today. Unlike many other categories, such as opiates and benzodiazepines, which are established according to pharmaceutical or chemical properties, club drugs are a "category of convenience", in which drugs are included due to the locations they are consumed and/or where the user goes while under the influence of the drugs. Club drugs are generally used by adolescents and young adults.

Sexual assault is an act of sexual abuse in which one intentionally sexually touches another person without that person's consent, or coerces or physically forces a person to engage in a sexual act against their will. It is a form of sexual violence that includes child sexual abuse, groping, rape, drug facilitated sexual assault, and the torture of the person in a sexual manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sedative</span> Drug that reduces excitement without inducing sleep

A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement. They are CNS depressants and interact with brain activity causing its deceleration. Various kinds of sedatives can be distinguished, but the majority of them affect the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). In spite of the fact that each sedative acts in its own way, most produce relaxing effects by increasing GABA activity.

Acquaintance rape is rape that is perpetrated by a person who knows the victim. Examples of acquaintances include someone the victim is dating, a classmate, co-worker, employer, family member, spouse, counselor, therapist, religious official, or medical doctor. Acquaintance rape includes a subcategory of incidents labeled date rape that involves people who are in romantic or sexual relationships with each other. When a rape is perpetrated by a college student on another student, the term campus rape is sometimes used.

Depressants, colloquially known as "downers" or central nervous system (CNS) depressants, are drugs that lower neurotransmission levels, decrease the electrical activity of brain cells, or reduce arousal or stimulation in various areas of the brain. Some specific depressants do influence mood, either positively or negatively, but depressants often have no clear impact on mood. In contrast, stimulants, or "uppers", increase mental alertness, making stimulants the opposite drug class from depressants. Antidepressants are defined by their effect on mood, not on general brain activity, so they form an orthogonal category of drugs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sodium oxybate</span> Medication to treat symptoms of narcolepsy

Sodium oxybate, sold under the brand name Xyrem among others, is a medication used to treat symptoms of narcolepsy: sudden muscle weakness and excessive daytime sleepiness. It is used sometimes in France and Italy as an anesthetic given intravenously; it is also approved and used in Italy and in Austria to treat alcohol dependence and alcohol withdrawal syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polysubstance use</span> Use of multiple psychoactive substances

Polysubstance use or poly drug use refers to the use of combined psychoactive substances. Polysubstance use may be used for entheogenic, recreational, or off-label indications, with both legal and illegal substances. In many cases one drug is used as a base or primary drug, with additional drugs to leaven or compensate for the side effects, or tolerance, of the primary drug and make the experience more enjoyable with drug synergy effects, or to supplement for primary drug when supply is low.

Rape can be categorized in different ways: for example, by reference to the situation in which it occurs, by the identity or characteristics of the victim, and by the identity or characteristics of the perpetrator. These categories are referred to as types of rape. The types described below are not mutually exclusive: a given rape can fit into multiple categories, by for example being both a prison rape and a gang rape, or both a custodial rape and the rape of a child.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug-related crime</span>

A drug-related crime is a crime to possess, manufacture, or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse. Drugs are also related to crime as drug trafficking and drug production are often controlled by drug cartels, organised crime and gangs. Some drug-related crime involves crime against the person such as robbery or sexual assaults.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol and sex</span>

Alcohol and sex deals with the effects of the consumption of alcohol on sexual behavior. The effects of alcohol are balanced between its suppressive effects on sexual physiology, which will decrease sexual activity, and its suppression of sexual inhibitions. A large portion of sexual assaults involve alcohol consumption by the perpetrator, victim, or both.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzodiazepine use disorder</span> Illicit use of benzodiazepine drugs

Benzodiazepine use disorder (BUD), also called misuse or abuse, is the use of benzodiazepines without a prescription and/or for recreational purposes, which poses risks of dependence, withdrawal and other long-term effects. Benzodiazepines are one of the more common prescription drugs used recreationally. When used recreationally benzodiazepines are usually administered orally but sometimes they are taken intranasally or intravenously. Recreational use produces effects similar to alcohol intoxication.

Rape investigation is the procedure to gather facts about a suspected rape, including forensic identification of a perpetrator, type of rape and other details.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drug-facilitated sexual assault</span> Method of sexual assault

Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a sexual assault carried out on a person after the person has become intoxicated due to being under the influence of any mind-altering substances, such as having consumed alcohol or been intentionally administered another date rape drug. The rape form of DFSA is also known as predator rape. 75% of all acquaintance rapes involve alcohol and/or drugs. Drugs, when used with or without alcohol, result in a loss of consciousness and a loss of the ability to consent to sex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol-related crime</span> Criminal activities that involve alcohol use

Alcohol-related crime refers to criminal activities that involve alcohol use as well as violations of regulations covering the sale or use of alcohol; in other words, activities violating the alcohol laws. Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol-specific offenses in the United States and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide. Similarly, arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the U.S. and elsewhere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol (drug)</span> Active ingredient in fermented drinks

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is the second most consumed psychoactive drug globally behind caffeine, and alcohol use disorders are the most prevalent of all substance use disorders worldwide. Alcohol is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, decreasing electrical activity of neurons in the brain. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies alcohol as a toxic, psychoactive, dependence-producing, and carcinogenic substance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drugs and sexual consent</span>

Drugs and sexual consent is a topic that discusses the impacts of drugs on sexual activity that lead to changes in sexual consent. Sexual consent is the voluntary agreement to engage in sexual activity, which is essential in preventing sexual violence. Consent can be communicated verbally or nonverbally and should be freely offered. However, drug use, particularly psychoactive drugs that alter mental processes, can affect people's decision-making and consent communication ability, potentially impacting the autonomous aspect of sexual consent.

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  40. ↑ Fradella, Fradella; Fahmy, Chantal (2016-02-26). Sex, Sexuality, Law, and (In)justice. Routledge. p. 155. ISBN   9781317528913.
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  42. ↑ Hornyak, Tim (2011-08-08). "Device serves date-rape drug detection on the rocks". CNET. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  43. ↑ Sage, Adam (2022-02-22). "French students create straw to test drinks for rape drug GHB | World | The Times" . The Times of London . ISSN   0140-0460 . Retrieved 2022-05-03.
  44. ↑ Sorties à Nances (2022-02-08), "Des étudiantes nantaises inventent la paille antidrogue - Sorties à Nances" [Nantes students invent anti-drug straw - Outings in Nantes], sortiesanantes.com (in French), retrieved 2022-05-03 (Google Translation)
  45. ↑ "What The Roofie-Detecting Nail Polish Gets So Wrong About Date Rape". HuffPost. 2014-08-27. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  46. ↑ "Undercover Colors SipChip: detects Flunitrazepam, Alprazolam, Diazepam, Midazolam, Oxazepam, Temazepam". Undercover Colors. 2018-11-25. Archived from the original on 2022-01-18. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  47. ↑ Fleischmann, Anne (2019-04-11). "German inventors develop bracelet to test drinks for date-rape drugs". euronews. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  48. ↑ Shuster, Beth (June 8, 1996). "Crackdown Sought on 'Date Rape' Drug". Los Angeles Times . Archived from the original on 2020-03-09. Retrieved January 7, 2020.
  49. ↑ Wilson, Marshall (June 11, 1996). "Drug Zaps Memory of Rape Victims / Sedative suspected in assault of girl, 15". San Francisco Chronicle . Retrieved January 7, 2020.
  50. ↑ Jenkins, Philip (1999). Synthetic panics: the symbolic politics of designer drugs . New York, NY [u.a.]: New York University Press. pp. 20 and 161–182. ISBN   0814742440.
  51. 1 2 Goode, Erich; Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (2009). Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance (2nd ed.). Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 217. ISBN   978-1405189347.
  52. ↑ Holmes, Cindy; Ristock, Janice L. (2004). "Exploring Discursive Constructions of Lesbian Abuse: Looking Inside and Out". In Shearer-Cremean, Christine; Winkelmann, Carol L. (eds.). Survivor Rhetoric: Negotiations and Narrativity in Abused Women's Language. Toronto [u.a.]: University of Toronto Press. p. 107. doi:10.3138/9781442684836-006. ISBN   0802089739. S2CID   151393377.
  53. ↑ Webber, Craig (2009). Psychology & Crime. London: Sage. p.  67. ISBN   978-1412919425.
  54. ↑ Jenkins, Philip (1999). Synthetic Panics: The Symbolic Politics of Designer Drugs . New York, NY [u.a.]: New York University Press. pp.  161–182. ISBN   0814742440.
  55. ↑ Jenkins, Philip (1999). Synthetic panics: the symbolic politics of designer drugs . New York, NY [u.a.]: New York University Press. p.  176. ISBN   0814742440.
  56. ↑ Dubinsky, Karen (1993). "Discourses of Danger: The Social and Spatial Settings of Violence". Improper Advances: Rape and Heterosexual Conflict in Ontario, 1880–1929 . Chicago u.a.: University of Chicago Press. p. 46. ISBN   0226167534. LCCN   92044673.


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