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Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible documents two narratives of gang rapes: the infamous account of Sodom and the story of the Levite Concubine in Gibeah (presented as a doublet with mimicking literary structure to the former). Both instances result in the judgement of God through destruction and war respectively.
Perpetrator characteristics
Gang rapes are typically perpetrated by two or more men, and tend to have somewhat different characteristics than rapes by individuals. For instance, gang rapists tend to be younger[15] and are more often repeat offenders, and the gang is more likely to be under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
Gang rapes are more violent on average compared to its individual counterpart, with significantly more severe sexual and non-sexual injuries to the victim. The gang members also typically dehumanize the victim more before and during the rape.[3][4][5] Gang rapes are almost always premeditated in their intent, target victim(s), social proof, and psychological causes.[16][17][clarification needed] Social factors such as civil wars, hate propaganda, and ethnic conflicts increase the rate of gang rape.[18][19]
Rape gang members often have a binding force such as the same race, or place of residence thereby forming a close-knit peer pressure group, encouraged by the behavior of their fellow criminals.[3][4][5] Gang rape can result from a group form of criminal spin, in which the group starts with less serious offenses which ultimately lead them to go well beyond their initial intention.
In a 2013 study based on 25-year crime data from US and Europe, between 10% and 20% of all rapes were gang rapes. Less than one in three gang rapes are reported, while less than 1 in 20 attempted but failed gang rapes are reported.[1]
Motives
Sexual entitlement and entertainment
A 2013 Lancet report found that among the motives for rape were sexual entitlement and seeking of entertainment. Associated factors in the crime included alcohol misuse, poverty, personal history of childhood victimization, need to prove heterosexual performance, dominance over women, and participation in gangs and related activities. As of September 2013[update], according to the report, most cases were not reported to law enforcement, and just 23% of single or multiple perpetrator rapes that were reported by the victims ended in prison sentence.[6] The 1886 Mount Rennie rape case in Sydney, Australia falls in this category.
Gang rapes during civil wars and ethnic riots take added dimension of becoming a means of revenge, sending a message to the victims' community, inducing fear in the opponent, and creating a sense of solidarity among the soldiers or militants or the violent group.[7][20] At least 20,000 women were raped or gang raped and afterwards killed during the Nanjing Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanjing, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945).
The Congo war saw thousands of gang rapes every week, with each relief center reporting 10 or more daily victims of gang rape with battering of women.[8][22] The Rwandan genocide of 1994 witnessed numerous gang rapes by soldiers.[23] The Bosnian war during the 1990s saw a similar campaign of gang rapes.[9] In the 1990s, the Kashmir region which was a battlefield between Jihadists and the Indian armed forces also saw a number of gang rapes which were perpetrated by both sides of the conflict to instill fear in the population of each side.[24]
In the Mpumalanga province of South Africa, there are instances of gang rape as punishment.[13] In Argentina and Pakistan,[41] gang rape has been reported to have been ordered as punishment.
Religious or racial factors
Though having the same race or religion often acts as a binding force for creating a close-knit serial rape gangs,[3][4][5] studies reported that 30% of these shared-identity rape gangs specifically targeted people of another religion or race.[14]
Gang rape by country
This is an incomplete list of countries, where government or media have acknowledged the problem of gang rape.
A study found that gang rapes involved more alcohol and drug use, night attacks and severe sexual assault outcomes and less victim resistance and fewer weapons than individual rapes.[42] Another study found that group sexual assaults were more violent and had greater resistance from the victim than individual sexual assaults and that victims of group sexual assaults were more likely to seek crisis and police services, to contemplate suicide and seek psychotherapy than those involved in individual assaults. The two groups were about the same in the amount of drug use and drinking during the assault.[43]
Porter and Alison have analyzed 739 gang rape cases from US and UK, and found over 20% of the gang rape victims died from injuries from the gang rape.[44] Gang rape is sometimes stereotyped in media as a crime of poor, minorities, or culture; however, gang rape incidence rates are high in wealthy collegecampuses, among non-minorities and every culture.[45]
Bangladesh
A 2013 Lancet study reports 1.9% of all rural men in Bangladesh have committed multiple perpetrator rape (gang rape) of a woman who was not a partner, compared to 1.4% urban men. 35% of those who have committed gang rapes against women have also committed additional rapes where the victim was a man. The motives of rape included a combination of reasons. Two thirds of the gang rape perpetrators claimed entertainment as their motive, 30% claimed they participated in gang rape out of anger and to inflict punishment on the victim, while 11% indicated the crime followed alcohol consumption.[6]
Brazil
This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(March 2015)
In the state of Rio de Janeiro alone, over 6,000 rapes are reported every year (or about 37 per 100,000 people).[46] Nationwide, the rape rate varied between 26 and 32 per 100,000 women in 2009.[47] The arrest rates on rape complaints, was 4% in Rio.[46] About 19.6% of 2011 rapes were gang rapes.[48] In 2016, more than 30 men drugged and gang raped a 16-year-old girl and later posted photos and a video to boast about it online.[49][50]
Canada
Peer pressure and sexual aggression are among the cited reasons for the crime.[51][52] Since 1983, Canada does not track rape or gang rape statistics separately, but tracks and reports Sexual Assault Tier 3 which includes both rape and gang rape. The average Sexual Assault Tier 3 victim rate in Canada was 15 per 100,000 women, according to a 2013 Statistics Canada article about violence against women.[53]
A Lancet study reports, in an online survey of 980 Chinese men, 2.2% of them admitted to having committed gang rape (multiple perpetrator rape) of a non-partner woman. About 36% of the perpetrators had raped more than one woman, 50% of those who had committed gang rape had raped both one partner as a single perpetrator as well as a non-partner during a gang rape, while 32% had gang raped a woman and raped a man. The study also found that 90% of the rapists were in the 15–29 age group at the time they perpetrated the first rape.[6]
In July 2013, Li Tianyi, the son of Chinese general Li Shuangjiang, was charged with four other men to being part of a gang rape. This case raised significant public anger over seemingly privileged treatment of elite gang rape criminals.[54]
Over two dozen gang rapes were reported during civil protests in Egypt from January to March 2013; however, activists claim that many more gang rapes often go unreported because most women are too ashamed to go to the police or even tell their relatives.[55][56]
During July 2013 at Tahrir Square, mobs assaulted and gang raped at least 46 women in 4 days.[57] A Dutch journalist was also gang-raped in Tahrir Square.[58][59] A similar gang rape and gang beating was reported by an American journalist in 2011. In a separate survey, over 90% of Egyptian women claimed to have experienced sexual violence in their lifetime.[60]
In October 2012, two girls in Fontenay-sous-Bois on the outskirts of Paris reported experiencing daily gang rapes in the high-rise tower blocks, sometimes by scores of boys. One witness described 50 boys "queuing" to rape her.[64] 10 of the 14 defendants who were minors at the time of gang rape were acquitted, while the remaining 4 adults found guilty were given 0 to 12 months in prison. This case shocked the country.[64][65] In 2014, the case of a Canadian tourist allegedly gang raped by four police officers in Paris received international attention.[66][67]
In 2024, during the Summer Olympics, an Australian woman was raped on a Paris street by five men. The 25-year-old woman with a partially torn dress took refuge in a kebab shop in the Pigalle district after the incident.[68][69]
The gang rape of a 23-year-old student on a public bus, on 16 December 2012 has focused international attention on India's legal system, especially laws pertaining to the protection of women. It sparked large protests across the capital of India, Delhi.[72] Several other case of child gang rapes have been also reported, such as the Kathua rape case.[73][74] The large scale protests resulted in amendments in rape laws in India by way of Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 and formation of "The Nirbhaya Fund", designed to be used for schemes by different states to ensure women's safety and security at public places, a one-stop centre for their grievances, a helpline and other measures.[75] There have been reports of gang rape of tourists in India like the Jharkhand tourist rape case.[76][77]
Gang rapes are a long-time phenomenon in India as historically, during the instability of the heavily political and wartime era of the |Mughal Empire]] in the 16th century, the soldiers of the large Mughal armies engaged in wartime sexual violence against women during their campaigns in all corners of India.[a] Upon the spotting of a beautiful woman, up to five or six soldiers would violate her. Women threw themselves to suicide to avoid such a fate and those who resisted had their breasts cut off.[78][79]
Indonesia
Reported cases of gang rape include Jakarta International School gang rape of a six-year-old,[80] gang rape of a Malaysian student in Indonesia,[81] and the Aceh gang rape case where the victim was charged with adultery when she reported the crime.[82]
A Lancet study[6] of Jakarta and Jayapura city on New Guinea island, found gang rape prevalence rate to be 2% and 6.8% of all Indonesian men respectively who, at some point in their lifetime, have committed multiple perpetrator rape. About 52% of the perpetrators had raped more than one woman, 64% of those who had committed gang rape had raped both partner as single perpetrator as well as non-partner during a gang rape, while 12% had gang raped a woman and raped a man. The study also found that 90% of the rapists in Indonesia were in the 15–29 age group when they committed their first rape.[6]
Iran
Public execution of Khomeyni Shahr gang rape case convicts (Iran)
Many incidents of gang rapes have been reported in Iran. In several cases, the police officials have blamed the victim for not wearing hijab, and in one case arresting the victim and two activists, who were trying to bring attention to the gang rape.[83][84]
While official statistics on reported and pending gang rapes in Iran are not published by the Iranian government, public hangings for gang rapes are routinely reported in Iranian newspapers.[85][86][87]
Malaysia
A 15-year-old schoolgirl in Ketereh, Kelantan, was gang raped by more than 30 men.[88][89]Malaysia reported about 3,000 rape cases in 2012, a rape incidence rate of about 10.7 rapes per 100,000 people. About 52% of these victims were less than 16 years old.[88] Like other nations, Malaysia does not segregate rape and gang rape cases.
Nigeria
Nigeria reports thousands of gang rapes every year.[90][91] In 2011, the ABSU gang rape, in which the gang videotaped their crime, drew widespread attention and protests inside Nigeria.[92] The prevalence of group rape has been proposed as a significant contributor to spread of sexual diseases and AIDS.[93]
Pakistan
The 2013 National Crime Data report for Pakistan suggest a current rape rate of 8.4 women per 100,000 population, of which about 10% were gang rapes.[94]
In some cases, such as Mukhtar Mai gang rape in Muzaffargarh, village elder's council (jirga) in Pakistan have ordered that the girl in a family is gang-raped as a means of punishing her brother, and this punishment was then carried out in public with everyone watching.[95] In 2011, Pakistan's Supreme Court freed 5 men who committed the gang-rape because their action was on orders of the village council.[96][97] Other gang rape cases reported in 2013 include Bahawalpur gang rape,[98]Lahore gang rape,[99]Peshawar gang rape,[100]Karachi gang rape of a girl with polio,[101] among others.
A Lancet study reports 14.1% of all men admitted to having committed gang rape (multiple perpetrator rape) of a non-partner woman sometime in their lifetime. 44% of these perpetrators had raped more than 1 woman over their lifetime.[6] In Papua New Guinea, 25% of the first rape was committed at a juvenile age less than 15, while in 70% of the cases the perpetrator's age was 15–29 at the time of first crime.
The Qatif rape case was a 2006 gang rape of a teenage girl by seven men. The case attracted international attention because the victim was initially ordered to receive 200 lashes but the ruling was overturned by the monarch after backlash.[103][104][105]
Gang rapes occur frequently in South Africa,[106] and in certain parts it is called jackrolling.[107] South Africa reported over 64,000 rapes in 2012, or about 127.5 women per 100,000 population.[108] With one woman raped every 4 minutes, South Africa has world's highest rape incidence rate per 100,000 women. Between 10% and 33% of all rapes are gang rapes involving three or more people. About 25% of youth near Johannesburg described gang rape as recreational and fun.[107][109]
In certain parts of South Africa where boys are often involved in gang rapes, rape rates are higher.[107] 40% of reported rape cases are on children below the age of 12.[110]
Vogelman and Lewis report 44% of rapists in South Africa have engaged in gang rape.[111] The National Institute of Crime Rehabilitation of South Africa claims only 1 out of 20 rapes are reported in South Africa, suggesting 1,300 women are raped every day.[112] A 2010 nationwide survey reported that about 27% of all South African men above the age of 18 have raped a woman in their lifetime one or more times, while 8.9% of all adult men have participated in a gang rape.[113] The gang rape prevalence rate varied significantly in different provinces of South Africa; for example, in Eastern Cape, 13.9% of men had gang raped a woman who was not a partner.[113]
In February 2013, a 17-year-old girl was gang raped, mutilated and left to die in a town near Cape Town. This led to widespread protests.
Spain
Reported gang rape cases include gang rape of a British tourist in Spain where one of the rapists (described by the victim as Arabic) was a 70-year-old man,[114] and gang rape in Huelva of a 13-year-old girl with a mental disability.[115] The La Manada rape case in 2016 led to significant public outcry.[116]
In 2013, Forskning & Framsteg(FoF), a Swedish popular science magazine, published an article reporting that "The evidence suggests that gang rapes in Sweden is increasing - despite the decline in violent crime in general."[117]FoF went on to report that, "The increase, which primarily occurred in the 2000s, may have to do with "rape with multiple perpetrators" from 2004, classified as "serious crime", which means that more obscure cases fall into this category." FoF further reports that "National Council's investigator, Klara Hradilova-Selin, said that "developments could at least partly be interpreted in terms of an actual increase."[117] Although there are a number of other important reasons why we are seeing more reports, such as, Klara Hradilova-Selin goes on to say, "more women dare to go the police" and an "increased alcohol consumption".[117] Finally FoF goes on to report that in the 1990s "In the gang rape of three or more perpetrators 39 percent are foreign born."[117] The statistics for gang rapes were not investigated by Swedish authorities after 2006.[117]
On 21 January 2017, in Uppsala, Sweden, a group of Arab Facebook users allegedly gang-raped an unconscious woman for several hours.[118][119][120] The crime was stopped when viewers of the Facebook live feed realized what was happening and phoned the police, who entered the apartment and interrupted the crime still in progress.[121][122]
In March 2018, newspaper Expressen investigated gang rape court cases from the two preceding years and found that there were 43 men having been convicted. Their average age was 21 and 13 were under the age of 18 when the crime was committed. Of the convicted, 40 out of the 43 were either immigrants (born abroad) or born in Sweden to immigrant parents.[123] Another investigation by newspaper Aftonbladet found that of 112 men and boys convicted for gang rape since July 2012, 82 were born outside Europe. The median age of the victims was 15, while 7 out of 10 perpetrators were between 15 and 20.[124]
United Arab Emirates
In several cases in 2013, the courts of the UAE have sentenced the gang raped woman to prison under its laws. For example, a British woman, after she reported being gang raped by three men, was charged with the crime of drinking alcohol in UAE; an Arab woman was sentenced to one year in prison for illicit sex after she complained of gang rape; an Australian woman was similarly sentenced to jail after she reported gang rape in the UAE, while a Norwegian woman was jailed for illicit sex when she reported rape by Arab men.[125] In another case, an 18-year Arab woman withdrew her complaint of gang rape inside a car by six men when the prosecution threatened her with a long jail term for consensual sex with multiple men.[126]
According to ABC News, a French teenage boy was gang raped by three Dubai men. The authorities demanded that the tourist confess he is gay and that he asked for sex. The boy insisted he was raped and diplomatic pressure led to the arrest and conviction of the gang members.[127]
A number of gang rapes have taken place in the United Kingdom,[128] although the UK authorities had not separately collected data on gang rapes until the 2011 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre report on localised grooming entitled "Out of Mind, Out of Sight",[129] but which only deals with adolescent victims. However, Scotland Yard expressed concern in 2009 over the rise of 'gang sex attacks' in London, detailing an increase of 71 cases in 2003/2004 to 93 cases in 2008/2009.[130]
Media reports of gang rapes in the UK are often racially charged since late 2000.[131][132] This due to a particular pattern of repeated non-white perpetrated gang rapes in the metropolitan areas.[131] The Rochdale sex trafficking gang would later epitomise the phenomenon.[133] The Home Office report of 2013 described these cases as '[showing] a particular model... of organised, serious exploitation and abuse that involves predominantly Pakistani-heritage men grooming and abusing predominantly white British girls.'[134] The report stresses that the Government does not believe 'localised grooming' is intrinsic of any culture, religion, and or race, despite acknowledging the phenomenon.
In March 2014, Crime Prevention Minister Norman Baker described "ground breaking work" to identify women and girls who can get drawn into gangs. "Girls associated with gangs can face sexual violence and we have provided £1.2m for 13 Young People's Advocates to support those at risk," he said on the launch of a report by the Centre for Social Justice (CSJ), a think-tank established in 2002 by Iain Duncan Smith, another Cabinet minister. Baker said the government had set up a network of more than 70 people with experience of dealing with gangs to work with 33 of the worst affected areas of the country, including 20 in London. In one case cited by the CSJ report, a schoolgirl was abducted and sexually assaulted by nine males because she criticised a gang member. The report found that girls as young as eight were being used to carry drugs while female gang members in their teens were being pressured to have sex with boys as young as 10 to initiate males into gangs. A 2014 report by the Office of the Children's Commissioner suggested that almost 2,500 children had been known to be victims of child sexual exploitation by gangs and groups.[135]
In July 2018 Home SecretarySajid Javid ordered research into the particular characteristics of grooming gangs.[136] However, as of March 2020 this report has not been released with the Home Office claiming it is ‘not in public interest’ to release the findings.[137]
United States
The US reports about 85,000 rapes a year, or an average of 27.3 rapes per 100,000 population.[138] There is a rape in the US every 6.2 minutes.[139] As with other countries, the US does not collect separate data on gang rapes; Vogelman and Lewis estimate 25% of all rapes in the US are gang rapes.[112] Another source indicates 21.8% of American rapes are gang rapes.[140] A Roger Williams University study estimates from survey of crime data that 16% of all male rapists in the US participated in a gang rape crime.[141]
A 15-year-old girl in Chicago was gang raped on Facebook live in 2017 while watched by over 40 people.[142] On a separate occasion, two teenage girls, one aged 15, the other aged 16, in La Crosse, Wisconsin, were gang raped by at least 11 men.[143]
Acquaintance rape is rape that is perpetrated by a person who knows the victim. Examples of acquaintances include someone the victim is dating, a classmate, co-worker, employer, family member, spouse, counselor, therapist, religious official, or medical doctor. Acquaintance rape includes a subcategory of incidents labeled date rape that involves people who are in romantic or sexual relationships with each other. When a rape is perpetrated by a college student on another student, the term campus rape is sometimes used.
Some victims of rape or other sexual violence incidents are male. Historically, rape was thought to be, and defined as, a crime committed solely against females. This belief is still held in some parts of the world, but rape of males is now commonly criminalized and has been subject to more discussion than in the past.
Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act—or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion—or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent, by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.
Victim blaming occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially at fault for the harm that befell them. There is historical and current prejudice against the victims of domestic violence and sex crimes, such as the greater tendency to blame victims of rape than victims of robbery if victims and perpetrators knew each other prior to the commission of the crime. The Gay Panic Defense has also been used to justify violence against LGBTQ people.
Rape culture is a setting, as described by some sociological theories, in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to that setting's attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut-shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence, or some combination of these. It has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire societies have been alleged to be rape cultures.
Rape can be categorized in different ways: for example, by reference to the situation in which it occurs, by the identity or characteristics of the victim, and by the identity or characteristics of the perpetrator. These categories are referred to as types of rape. The types described below are not mutually exclusive: a given rape can fit into multiple categories, by for example being both a prison rape and a gang rape, or both a custodial rape and the rape of a child.
Rape by gender classifies types of rape by the sex and gender of both the rapist and the victim. This scope includes both rape and sexual assault more generally. Most research indicates that rape affects women disproportionately, with the majority of people convicted being men; however, since the broadening of the definition of rape in 2012 by the FBI, more attention is being given to male rape, including females raping males.
Statistics on rape and other acts of sexual assault are commonly available in industrialized countries, and have become better documented throughout the world. Inconsistent definitions of rape, different rates of reporting, recording, prosecution and conviction for rape can create controversial statistical disparities, and lead to accusations that many rape statistics are unreliable or misleading.
Rape is a type of sexual assault involving sexual intercourse, or other forms of sexual penetration, carried out against a person without their consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability, or is below the legal age of consent. The term rape is sometimes casually inaccurately used interchangeably with the term sexual assault.
Corrective rape, also called curative rape or homophobic rape, is a hate crime in which somebody is raped because of their perceived sexual orientation. The common intended consequence of the rape, as claimed by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the east of the country in particular, has been described as the "Rape Capital of the World", and the prevalence and intensity of all forms of sexual violence has been described as the worst in the world. Human Rights Watch defines sexual violence as "an act of a sexual nature by force, or by threat of force or coercion", and rape as "a form of sexual violence during which the body of a person is invaded, resulting in penetration, however slight, of any part of the body of the victim, with a sexual organ, or of the anal or genital opening of the victim with any object or other part of the body."
The rate of sexual violence in South Africa is among the highest recorded in the world. Police statistics of reported rapes as a per capita figure has been dropping in recent years, although the reasons for the drop has not been analysed and it is not known how many rapes go unreported. More women are attacked than men, and children have also been targeted, partly owing to a myth that having sex with a virgin will cure a man of HIV/AIDS. Rape victims are at high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS owing to the high prevalence of the disease in South Africa. "Corrective rape" is also perpetrated against LGBT men and women.
Rape in the United States is defined by the United States Department of Justice as "Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim." While definitions and terminology of rape vary by jurisdiction in the United States, the FBI revised its definition to eliminate a requirement that the crime involve an element of force.
Rape is the fourth most common crime against women in India. According to the 2021 annual report of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 31,677 rape cases were registered across the country, or an average of 86 cases daily, a rise from 2020 with 28,046 cases, while in 2019, 32,033 cases were registered. Of the total 31,677 rape cases, 28,147 of the rapes were committed by persons known to the victim. The share of victims who were minors or below 18 – the legal age of consent – stood at 10%.
Rape in Egypt is a criminal offense with penalties ranging from lifetime sentence to capital punishment. Marital rape is legal. By 2008, the U.N. quoted Egypt's Interior Ministry's figure that 20,000 rapes take place every year, although according to the activist Engy Ghozlan (ECWR), rapes are 10 times higher than the stats given by Interior Ministry, making it 200,000 per year. Mona Eltahawy has also noted the same figure (200,000), and added that this was before the revolution.
Violence against women in India refers to physical or sexual violence committed against a woman, typically by a man.
Mass sexual assault is the collective sexual assault of women, men and sometimes children, in public by groups. Typically acting under the protective cover of large gatherings, victims have reported being groped, stripped, beaten, bitten, penetrated and raped.
Rape myths are prejudicial, stereotyped, and false beliefs about sexual assaults, rapists, and rape victims. They often serve to excuse sexual aggression, create hostility toward victims, and bias criminal prosecution.
The Kashmir conflict has been beset by large scale usage of sexual violence by multiple belligerents since its inception.
Violence against women in the United States is the use of domestic abuse, murder, sex-trafficking, rape and assault against women in the United States. It has been recognized as a public health concern. Culture in the United States has led towards the trivialization of violence towards women, with media in the United States possibly contributing to making women-directed violence appear unimportant to the public.
References
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↑ Neumann, Stephani. Gang Rape: Examining Peer Support and Alcohol in Fraternities. Sex Crimes and Paraphilia. Hickey, Eric W., 397-407
1 2 3 4 Ullman, Sarah (1999). A comparison of gang and individual rape incidents. Violence and victims, 14(2), pp. 123–133
1 2 3 4 Porter, L. E., & Alison, L. J. (2001). A Partially Ordered Scale of Influence in Violent Group Behavior An Example From Gang Rape. Small Group Research, 32(4), pp. 475–497
1 2 3 4 Berkowitz A (1992). "College men as perpetrators of acquaintance rape and sexual assault: A review of recent research". Journal of American College Health. 40 (4): 175–181. doi:10.1080/07448481.1992.9936279. PMID1583239.
↑ Porter L. E., Alison L. J. (2006). "Examining group rape: A descriptive analysis of offender and victim behaviour". European Journal of Criminology. 3 (3): 357–381. doi:10.1177/1477370806065586. S2CID144273508.
↑ Sanday, P. (2007). Fraternity gang rape: Sex, brotherhood, and privilege on campus. New York University Press, ISBN978-0-8147-4038-5
↑ Joseph Murray, Crime and violence in Brazil: Systematic review of time trends, prevalence rates and risk factors, Aggressive Violent Behavior, Sep 2013; 18(5): 471–483
↑ Pablo Lira, Índice de violência criminalizada (IVC), II Congresso Consad de Gestão Pública, Gestão em segurança pública, Government of Brasil (2013); pp. 17–23
↑ De Keseredy & Kelly (1995), Sexual abuse in Canadian university and college dating relationships: The contribution of male peer support, Journal of Family Violence, 10(1), 41–53
↑ Horvath & Kelly (2009), Multiple perpetrator rape: Naming an offence and initial research findings, Journal of Sexual Aggression, 15(1), 83-96
1 2 Ireland, Susan (Winter 2007). "Textualizing Trauma in Samira Bellil's Dans l'enfer des tournantes and Fabrice Génestal's La squale". Dalhousie French Studies. 81: 131–141. JSTOR40837893.
↑ Onyejekwe, Chineze J. (2008). Nigeria: The Dominance of Rape. Journal of International Women's Studies, 10(1), pp. 48–63
↑ Akinade, E. A., Adewuyi, T. D. O., & Sulaiman, A. (2010). Socio-legal factors that influence the perpetuation of rape in Nigeria. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, pp. 1760–1764
↑ Du Mont J., White D. (2013). "Sexual violence: what does it take for the world to care about women?". Journal of Public Health. 35 (2): 182–184. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdt045. PMID23616625.
↑ Dartnall, E., & Jewkes, R. (2012). Sexual violence against women: The scope of the problem. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology.
↑ Swart L et al. Rape surveillance through district surgeons’ offices in Johannesburg, 1996–1998: findings, evaluation and prevention implications.South African Journal of Psychology, 2000, 30:1–10.
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