Under-reporting

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Under-reporting usually refers to some issue, incident, statistic, etc., that individuals, responsible agencies, or news media have not reported, or have reported as less than the actual level or amount. Under-reporting of crimes, for example, makes it hard to figure the actual incidence of crimes.

Contents

Under-reporting is a failure in data reporting.

Crime

Various estimates have been provided in relation to under-reporting of crimes across the world. According to the American Medical Association (1995), sexual violence, and rape in particular, is considered the most under-reported violent crime. [1] Common reasons for individuals not reporting crime include fear of not being believed, insecurity, and fear of getting into trouble. These reasons are most common for not reporting rape. [2] It is commonly assumed that most of the rape cases go unreported; [3] some estimates go up to or above 90%. [4] [5] (See also Rape reporting.) Non-recognition of domestic violence may lead to under-reporting.

Anti-LGBT+ crime

Under-reporting of violence against LGBT people including homicide is widespread, and is more likely to arise in countries that criminalise same-sex relationships, especially regimes that impose the death penalty for them. [6] Even under democratic rule of law governance where there are LGBT rights protections, under-reporting occurs. A US investigation by the Center for Public Integrity in collaboration with ProPublica and News21 found that violent attacks and other hate crimes against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans "are consistently not reported and prosecuted because of chronic distrust between the LGBTQ community and police":

Nearly 300,000 crimes may have been committed against people across the United States because of their sexual orientation from 2012 to 2016, according to a News21 analysis of data from the federal National Crime Victimization Survey, which tens of thousands of American households fill out each year. [7]

In Australia, the New South Wales Legislative Council Standing Committee on Social Issues A Report into Youth Violence in New South Wales, published September 1995 noted significant under-reporting of LGBT bullying by victims out of fear of reprisals, and outing to their families and peers, that had led the Department of Education to underestimate its prevalence: [8]

It is of concern that of 37 students reporting incidents of verbal or physical harassment, 31 had not reported the most serious incidents to school authorities. (Submission 43). In two submissions to the Committee from school students, little sympathy was expressed for victims of this form of violence (Submissions 20 and 58). It was suggested to the Committee that 46% of young people involved in an anti-homophobia workshop in one school were not aware that it was illegal to bash homosexuals. A group of ten students, charged with the murder of a Sydney man at a park near their High School, expressed genuine surprise upon their arrest (in camera evidence). The Committee also heard that school personnel have demonstrated homophobic attitudes. [9]

Child Abuse

According to the National Children's Alliance, over 600,000 children in the US were victims of abuse and neglect in 2021, the most recent year for which there was national data, with the actual number likely under-reported because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in that year. An estimated 1.8 million children received prevention services. [10] [11] Lack of mandatory reporting of child abuse [12] in certain countries has contributed to under-reporting. In 2024, 27 EU countries did not have mandatory reporting, [13] while child abuse that has occurred in religious institutions such as in the Catholic Church has been under-reported through concealment by church authorities. [14] Children themselves may feel unable to report abuse because of fear of revenge by their abuser, or embarrassment, humiliation, or thinking they would not be believed. Moreover, a child may be too young to have the words to explain what is happening to them. If the abuser has introduced the child to drugs or pornography, the child may fear getting into trouble. Fear and guilt thus play a role in making the child think they have done something wrong. An abuser may also manifest overt generosity to their victim by showering them with gifts and affection, so the child may irrationally come to love their abuser and not want to report them. [15]

Fraud

In 2012, the universities of Leicester and Westminster, while collaborating with Serious Organised Crime Agency, estimated that 200,000 people had been victims of online dating fraud. The report included instances of under-reported frauds. [16]

Murder

Murders are sometimes not reported, [17] due to the fear of the alleged murderer's connection with another murderer, or because of a settlement. Forced suicide has led to honour killings going unreported. [18] [19] The reported murder rates in China have been criticized for under-reporting unsolved murders due to police salaries being based on the rate of solved cases. [20]

Disease

Under-reported dengue in India, [21] polio in Pakistan, [22] [23] disability in Malaysia, [24] and COVID-19 in many countries remain a problem. In the United States, it was estimated in 1989 that 40% of the AIDS cases in South Carolina went unreported. [25] In 2008, out of 2,460 deaths from AIDS-related illnesses during a six-year period in Washington, DC, an estimated of 1,337 had not been reported. [26] On the basis of national surveys and excess death statistics it was estimated that Covid-19 mortality through September 2021 has been under-reported in India by a factor of as much as 6 or 7. [27]

Population

Under-reporting of population in countries such as China has been documented. [28]

See also

Related Research Articles

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, and asexual (LGBTQIA+) people frequently experience violence directed toward their sexuality, gender identity, or gender expression. This violence may be enacted by the state, as in laws prescribing punishment for homosexual acts, or by individuals. It may be psychological or physical and motivated by biphobia, gayphobia, homophobia, lesbophobia, and transphobia. Influencing factors may be cultural, religious, or political mores and biases.

Some victims of rape or other sexual violence incidents are male. It is estimated that approximately one in six men experienced sexual abuse during childhood. Historically, rape was thought to be, and defined as, a crime committed solely against females. This belief is still held in some parts of the world, but rape of males is now commonly criminalized and has been subject to more discussion than in the past.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Murder of Jesse Dirkhising</span> 1999 child murder in Rogers, Arkansas

Jesse William Dirkhising, also known as Jesse Yates, was an American teenager from Prairie Grove, Arkansas. He was staying with two men who bound, drugged, tortured, and repeatedly raped him. He died from drugging and positional asphyxia during the ordeal.

Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act—or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion—or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent, by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.

Prison rape commonly refers to the rape of inmates in prison by other inmates or prison staff. In 2001, Human Rights Watch estimated that at least 4.3 million inmates had been raped while incarcerated in the United States. A United States Department of Justice report, Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, states that "In 2011–12, an estimated 4.0% of state and federal prison inmates and 3.2% of jail inmates reported experiencing one or more incidents of sexual victimization by another inmate or facility staff in the past 12 months or since admission to the facility, if less than 12 months." However, advocates dispute the accuracy of the numbers, saying they seem to under-report the real numbers of sexual assaults in prison, especially among juveniles.

In scholarly literature and criminology, gang rape, also called serial gang rape, party rape, group rape, or multiple perpetrator rape, is the rape of a single victim by two or more violators. Gang rapes are forged on shared identity, religion, ethnic group, or race. There are multiple motives for serial gang rapes, such as for sexual entitlement, asserting sexual prowess, war, punishment, and, in up to 30% of cases, for targeting racial minorities, religious minorities, or ethnic groups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Afghanistan</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan face severe challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Afghan members of the LGBT community are forced to keep their gender identity and sexual orientation secret, in fear of violence and the death penalty. The religious nature of the country has limited any opportunity for public discussion, with any mention of homosexuality and related terms deemed taboo.

Rape by gender classifies types of rape by the sex and gender of both the rapist and the victim. This scope includes both rape and sexual assault more generally. Most research indicates that rape affects women disproportionately, with the majority of people convicted being men; however, since the broadening of the definition of rape in 2012 by the FBI, more attention is being given to male rape, including females raping males.

Statistics on rape and other sexual assaults are commonly available in industrialized countries, and have become better documented throughout the world. Inconsistent definitions of rape, different rates of reporting, recording, prosecution and conviction for rape can create controversial statistical disparities, and lead to accusations that many rape statistics are unreliable or misleading.

Crime has been recorded in the United States since its founding and has fluctuated significantly over time, with a sharp rise after 1900 and reaching a broad bulging peak between the 1970s and early 1990s. After 1992, crime rates have generally trended downwards each year, with the exceptions of a slight increase in property crimes in 2001 and increases in violent crimes in 2005-2006, 2014-2016 and 2020-2021. While official federal crime data beginning in 2021 has a wide margin of error due to the incomplete adoption of the National Incident-Based Reporting System by government agencies, federal data for 2020-2021 and limited data from select U.S. cities collected by the nonpartisan Council on Criminal Justice showed significantly elevated rates of homicide and motor vehicle theft in 2020-2022. Although overall crime rates have fallen far below the peak of crime seen in the United States during the late 1980s and early 1990s, the homicide rate in the U.S. has remained high, relative to other "high income"/developed nations, with eight major U.S. cities ranked among the 50 cities with the highest homicide rate in the world in 2022. The aggregate cost of crime in the United States is significant, with an estimated value of $4.9 trillion reported in 2021. Data from the first half of 2023, from government and private sector sources show that the murder rate has dropped, as much as 12% in as many as 90 cities across the United States. The drop in homicide rates is not uniform across the country however, with some cities such as Memphis, TN, showing an uptick in murder rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape</span> Type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse without consent

Rape is a type of sexual assault involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without their consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability, or is below the legal age of consent. The term rape is sometimes used interchangeably with the term sexual assault.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Angola</span> Summary of human rights in Angola

Angola has long been severely criticized for its human rights record. A 2012 report by the U.S. Department of State said, "The three most important human rights abuses [in 2012] were official corruption and impunity; limits on the freedoms of assembly, association, speech, and press; and cruel and excessive punishment, including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel. Other human rights abuses included: harsh and potentially life-threatening prison conditions; arbitrary arrest and detention; lengthy pretrial detention; impunity for human rights abusers; lack of judicial process and judicial inefficiency; infringements on citizens' privacy rights and forced evictions without compensation; restrictions on nongovernmental organizations; discrimination and violence against women; abuse of children; trafficking in persons; discrimination against persons with disabilities, indigenous people, and persons with HIV/AIDS; limits on workers' rights; and forced labor." In 2022, Freedom House rated Angola "not free".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBT rights in Sierra Leone</span>

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Sierra Leone face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. Male same-sex sexual activity is illegal in Sierra Leone and carries a possible penalty of life imprisonment, although this law is seldom enforced.

Corrective rape, also called curative rape or homophobic rape, is a hate crime in which somebody is raped because of their perceived sexual orientation. The common intended consequence of the rape, as claimed by the perpetrator, is to turn the person heterosexual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual violence in South Africa</span>

The rate of sexual violence in South Africa is among the highest recorded in the world. Police statistics of reported rapes as a per capita figure has been dropping in recent years, although the reasons for the drop has not been analysed and it is not known how many rapes go unreported. More women are attacked than men, and children have also been targeted, partly owing to a myth that having sex with a virgin will cure a man of HIV/AIDS. Rape victims are at high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS owing to the high prevalence of the disease in South Africa. "Corrective rape" is also perpetrated against LGBT men and women.

Punishment for rape in Pakistan under the Pakistani laws is either death penalty or imprisonment of between ten and twenty-five years. For cases related to gang rape, the punishment is either death penalty or life imprisonment. DNA test and other scientific evidence are used in prosecuting rape cases in Pakistan.

Rape is the fourth most common crime against women in India. According to the 2021 annual report of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 31,677 rape cases were registered across the country, or an average of 86 cases daily, a rise from 2020 with 28,046 cases, while in 2019, 32,033 cases were registered. Of the total 31,677 rape cases, 28,147 of the rapes were committed by persons known to the victim. The share of victims who were minors or below 18 – the legal age of consent – stood at 10%.

Domestic violence is prominent in Nigeria as in other parts of Africa. There is a deep cultural belief in Nigeria that it is socially acceptable to hit a woman as a disciplinary measure. Cases of Domestic violence are on the high and show no signs of reduction in Nigeria, regardless of age, tribe, religion, or even social status. The CLEEN Foundation reports 1 in every 3 respondents identified themselves as a victim of domestic violence. The survey also found a nationwide increase in domestic violence in the past 3 years from 21% in 2011 to 30% in 2013. A CLEEN Foundation's 2012 National Crime and Safety Survey demonstrated that 31% of the national sample confessed to being victims of domestic violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against women in India</span> Public health issue of violent acts against women

Violence against women in India refers to physical or sexual violence committed against a woman, typically by a man. Common forms of violence against women in India include acts such as domestic abuse, sexual assault, and murder. There are several forms of violence against women, murder, female infanticide, sexual crimes, acid throwing, perpetuation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual violence in Finland</span> Overview of sexual violence in Finland

Sexual violence means that someone forces or manipulates someone else into unwanted sexual activity without their consent. Such violence can take place in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships, as well as outside intimate relationships. All sexual offenses violate the basic right of sexual self-determination. In Finland, sexual violence and taking advantage of a person is always a crime, even if the assaulter was the victim's spouse, relative or their friend. Sexual offences include but are not limited to rape, forcing someone into a sexual act and taking sexual advantage of a person. The victims of sexual violence are predominantly women, but 26 percent of Finnish men have experienced sexual harassment since their 15th birthday.

References

  1. ↑ "A gap or a chasm? Attrition in reported rape cases" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-14. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  2. ↑ "Between 70-90% rapes thought to go unreported …and 94% of reported cases don't end in a conviction - University of Surrey - Guildford". Surrey.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  3. ↑ Nina Lakhani (2012-03-12). "Unreported rapes: the silent shame - Crime - UK". The Independent. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  4. ↑ "Rape Myths and Facts | wellwvu | West Virginia University". Well.wvu.edu. 2013-09-24. Archived from the original on 2017-04-20. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  5. ↑ "15642_Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  6. ↑ Max Bearak and Darla Cameron. (16 June 2016). Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death. Washington Post.
  7. ↑ Emma Keith, Katie Gagliano and News21 Staff. (24 August 2018). Lack of trust in law enforcement hinders reporting of LBGTQ crimes. Center for Public Integrity.
  8. ↑ Maslen, Geoff. (11 April 1997). Teenage gays sue over gang attacks. TES (magazine). United Kingdom.
  9. ↑ A Report into Youth Violence in New South Wales. Report No 8, P.92, Para. 3.10: 'Violence Against Homosexuals and Lesbians': Standing Committee on Social Issues, New South Wales Legislative Council.
  10. ↑ National Statistics on Child Abuse. National Children's Alliance.
  11. ↑ 'Total number of victims of child abuse in the United States from 2012 to 2021 '. Society > Crime & Law Enforcement: Statista.
  12. ↑ What is child abuse?. NSPCC.
  13. ↑ Provisions on professionals' legal obligation to report cases of child abuse, neglect and violence. Fundamental Rights Agency. European Union
  14. ↑ Livni, Ephrat. (15 August 2018).The Catholic Church’s seven-point system for covering up abuse. Quartz (publication).
  15. ↑ Why children do not tell about abuse.. parentsprotect.co.uk website.
  16. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-04. Retrieved 2014-02-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  17. ↑ John Esterbrook (2002-09-09). "Millions Of Crimes Go Unreported". CBS News. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  18. ↑ Gorar, M. (2022). 'Honour Suicide and Forced Suicide in the UK.' The Journal of Criminal Law, 86(5), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220183221115294.
  19. ↑ R Reddy, 'Domestic Violence or Cultural Tradition? Approaches to "Honour Killing" as Species and Subspecies in English Legal Practice' in AK Gill et al. 'Honour' Killing & Violence (Palgrave MacMillan 2014) 29.
  20. ↑ June Cheng. The puzzle of China’s low crime rates. 2018-10-25. Accessed 2019-09-05
  21. ↑ Manish Kakkar. "Dengue fever is massively under-reported in India, hampering our response". BMJ. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  22. ↑ Haroon Shabbir, Sajeel Saeed, Muhammad Farhan, Khawar Abbas, Mohammad Ebad ur Rehman, Fahad Gul, and Jawad Basita. (31 July 2022). Poliomyelitis in Pakistan: Challenges to polio eradication and future prospects. National Library of Medicine.
  23. ↑ Khattak, Jehangir. "Why Pakistan is losing the war against polio – The Express Tribune". Tribune.com.pk. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  24. ↑ ian mcintyre (2013-09-16). "The number of disabled people under-reported, says don - Community | The Star Online". Thestar.com.my. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  25. ↑ AP (1989-11-28). "40% of AIDS Cases Go Unreported in Carolina - New York Times". The New York Times . South Carolina. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  26. ↑ "Newsfeed : AIDS Deaths Go Unreported in Washington, DC". Poz.com. 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
  27. ↑ Jha, Prabhat; Deshmukh, Yashwant; Tumbe, Chinmay; Suraweera, Wilson; Bhowmick, Aditi; Sharma, Sankalp; Novosad, Paul; Fu, Sze Hang; Newcombe, Leslie; Gelband, Hellen; Brown, Patrick (6 January 2022). "COVID mortality in India: National survey data and health facility deaths". Science. 375 (6581): 667–671. Bibcode:2022Sci...375..667J. doi:10.1126/science.abm5154. PMC   9836201 . PMID   34990216. S2CID   246801325.
  28. ↑ Underreporting of Births and Infant Deaths in Rural China: Evidence from Field Research in One County of Northern China, No. 155 (Sep., 1998), pp. 637-655
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