The name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malays and the Latin-Greek suffix -ia/-ία[18] which can be translated as 'land of the Malays'.[19] Similar-sounding variants have also appeared in accounts older than the 11th century, as toponyms for areas in Sumatra or referring to a larger region around the Strait of Malacca.[20] The Sanskrit text Vayu Purana, thought to have been in existence since the first millennium CE, mentioned a land named 'Malayadvipa' which was identified by certain scholars as the modern Malay Peninsula.[21][22][23][24][25] Other notable accounts are by the 2nd-century Ptolemy's Geographia that used the name Malayu Kulon for the west coast of Golden Chersonese, and the 7th-century Yijing's account of Malayu.[20]
At some point, the Melayu Kingdom took its name from the Sungai Melayu.[26][27]Melayu then became associated with Srivijaya,[20] and remained associated with various parts of Sumatra, especially Palembang, where the founder of the Malacca Sultanate is thought to have come from.[28] It is only thought to have developed into an ethnonym as Malacca became a regional power in the 15th century. Islamisation established an ethnoreligious identity in Malacca, with the term Melayu beginning to appear as interchangeable with Melakans. It may have specifically referred to local Malays speakers thought loyal to the Malaccan Sultan. The initial Portuguese use of Malayos reflected this, referring only to the ruling people of Malacca. The prominence of traders from Malacca led Melayu to be associated with Muslim traders, and from there became associated with the wider cultural and linguistic group.[20] Malacca and later Johor claimed they were the centre of Malay culture, a position supported by the British which led to the term Malay becoming more usually linked to the Malay peninsula rather than Sumatra.[28]
Before the onset of European colonisation, the Malay Peninsula was known natively as Tanah Melayu ('Malay Land').[29] Under a racial classification created by a German scholar Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, the natives of maritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category, the Malay race.[30][31] Following the expedition of French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville to Oceania in 1826, he later proposed the terms of Malaysia, Micronesia and Melanesia to the Société de Géographie in 1831, distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing term Polynesia. Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as "an area commonly known as the East Indies".[32] In 1850, the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as "Melayunesia" or "Indunesia", favouring the former.[33] The name Malaysia gained some use to label what is now the Malay Archipelago.[34] In modern terminology, Malay remains the name of an ethnoreligious group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the adjacent islands of Southeast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and smaller islands that lie between these areas.[35]
The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the name the Federation of Malaya, chosen in preference to other potential names such as Malaysia[36] and Langkasuka,[36] after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE.[37][38] Nonetheless, the name Malaysia was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya, plus Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation.[39][e] One theory posits the name was chosen so that si represented the inclusion of Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak to Malaya in 1963.[39] Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state Malaysia before the modern country took the name.[41]
The Malacca Sultanate played a major role in spreading Islam throughout the Malay Archipelago.
Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000years.[42] In the Malay Peninsula, the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos.[43][44] Areas of Malaysia participated in the Maritime Jade Road between 2000 BC to 1000 AD.[45][46][47][48] Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries. Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures, and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century.[49] The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century.[37] Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijayan empire. By the 13th and the 14th century, the Majapahit empire had successfully wrested control over most of the peninsula and the Malay Archipelago from Srivijaya.[50] In the early 15th century, Parameswara, a runaway king of the former Kingdom of Singapura linked to the old Srivijayan court, founded the Malacca Sultanate.[51] The spread of Islam increased following Parameswara's conversion to that religion. Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region.[52]
The Dutch fleet battling with the Portuguese armada as part of the Dutch–Portuguese War in 1606 to gain control of Malacca
In 1511, Malacca was conquered by Portugal,[52] after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641. In 1786, the British Empire established a presence in Malaya, when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang Island to the British East India Company. The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819,[53] and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. By 1826, the British directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States, had British residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer by treaty.[54] The remaining five states on the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly under British rule, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.[55] The area that is now Sabah came under British control as North Borneo when both the Sultan of Brunei and the Sultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership, between 1877 and 1878.[56] In 1842, Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke, whose successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946, when it became a crown colony.[57]
In the Second World War, the Japanese Armyinvaded and occupied Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.[58] Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered by Allied forces.[59] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the Malayan Union met with strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese. The Malayan Union, established in 1946, and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.[60]
Leader of the Malayan Communist Party Lee Meng holding a rifle during the Malayan Emergency, 1951
During this time, the mostly ethnically Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. The Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.[61] On 31 August 1957, Malaya became an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[62] Subsequently, a comprehensive plan was devised to unite Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo (known as Sabah upon joining), Sarawak, and Singapore. The envisioned federation was originally intended to take place on 31 August 1963, to coincide with the commemoration of Malayan independence. However, due to the necessity of conducting a survey on the level of support for the federation in Sabah and Sarawak by the United Nations, as requested by opponents of the federation such as Indonesia's Sukarno and the Sarawak United Peoples' Party, the date of the federation was postponed until 16 September 1963.[63][64]
Malaysia is a federalconstitutionalelective monarchy; the only federal country in Southeast Asia.[75] The system of government is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British rule.[76] The head of state is the King, whose official title is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states. The other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. By informal agreement the position is rotated among the nine,[76] and has been held by Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor since 31 January 2024. The King's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to the constitution in 1994, picking ministers and members of the upper house.[77]
Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral federal parliament consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives and the upper house, the Senate.[78] The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies. All 70 senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister's recommendation.[52] The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system.[52][79] Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years.[52] Before 2018, only registered voters aged 21 and above could vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states, for the state legislative chamber. Voting is not mandatory.[80] In July 2019, a bill to lower the voting age to 18 years old was officially passed.[81]
Malaysia's legal system is based on common law.[52] Although the judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency.[85] The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court, followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia. Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against royalty.[86]
Race is a significant force in politics.[52]Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy[68] and the National Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputera, consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia, over non-bumiputera such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians.[87] These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment, education, scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has generated greater interethnic resentment.[88] There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflect Islamism or secularism.[89] Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party with the support of UMNO state assemblymen in the state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government.[90][91][92]
After UMNO lost power at the 2018 Malaysian general election, Malaysia's ranking increased by 9 places in the 2019 Democracy Index to 43rd compared to the previous year and is classified as a 'flawed democracy'.[93] Malaysia's ranking in the 2020 Press Freedom Index increased by 22 places to 101st compared to the previous year, making it one of two countries in Southeast Asia without a 'Difficult situation' or 'Very Serious situation' with regards to press freedom.[94] However, it fell 18 places the following year due to the policies of the PN government.[95]
Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories.[100] These are divided between two regions, with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states and one federal territory in East Malaysia. Each state is divided into districts, which are then divided into mukim. In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions.[101]
Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments, with different powers reserved for each, and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal territories.[102] Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single-member constituencies. State governments are led by Chief Ministers,[52] who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly. In each of the states with a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister is normally required to be a Malay, appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister.[103] Except for state elections in Sarawak, by convention state elections are held concurrently with the federal election.[77]
Lower-level administration is carried out by local authorities, which include city councils, district councils, and municipal councils, although autonomous statutory bodies can be created by the federal and state governments to deal with certain tasks.[104] The federal constitution puts local authorities outside of the federal territories under the exclusive jurisdictions of the state government,[105] although in practice the federal government has intervened in the affairs of state local governments.[106] There are 154 local authorities, consisting of 14 city councils, 38 municipal councils and 97 district councils.
The 13 states are based on historical Malay kingdoms, and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states, known as the Malay states, retain their royal families. The King is elected by and from the nine rulers to serve a five-year term.[52] This King appoints governors serving a four-year term for the states without monarchies, after consultations with the chief minister of that state. Each state has its own written constitution.[107] Sabah and Sarawak have considerably more autonomy than the other states, most notably having separate immigration policies and controls, and a unique residency status.[108][109][110] Federal intervention in state affairs, lack of development, and disputes over oil royalties have occasionally led to statements about secession from leaders in several states such as Penang, Johor, Kelantan, Sabah and Sarawak, although these have not been followed up and no serious independence movements exist.[111][112][113][114]
States
A list of thirteen states and each state capital (in parentheses):
Malaysia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system.[123] The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia,[122] and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation[123] while strengthening relations with other Islamic states.[122] A strong tenet of Malaysia's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs.[77] Malaysia signed the U.N. treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[124][125]
The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area, and a large portion of the South China Sea is claimed by China. Unlike its neighbours of Vietnam and the Philippines, Malaysia historically avoided conflicts with China.[126] However, after the encroachment of Chinese ships in Malaysian territorial waters,[127] and breach of airspace by their military aircraft, Malaysia has become active in condemning China.[128][129] Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other's land, and committed to resolve issues related to their maritime borders.[130] The Philippines has a dormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah.[131] Singapore's land reclamation has caused tensions,[132] and minor maritime and land border disputes exist with Indonesia.[131][133]
The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for almost 40 years. It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.[136] Joint exercises and war games have also been held with Brunei,[137] China,[138] India,[139] Indonesia,[140] Japan,[141] and the United States.[142] Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration, piracy, and smuggling.[143][144][145] Previously there were fears that extremist militant activities in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines[citation needed] and southern Thailand[146] would spill over into Malaysia. Because of this, Malaysia began to increase its border security.[citation needed]
In July 2023, The 1975 lead singer Matty Healy slammed the country's anti-LGBTQ laws by kissing bandmate Ross MacDonald on stage at a music festival in Kuala Lumpur causing the Ministry of Communications and Digital to cancel the 3 day event.[161]
Malaysia is the 66th largest country by total land area, with a total area of 330,803km2 (127,724sqmi).[9] It has land borders with Thailand in West Malaysia, and Indonesia and Brunei in East Malaysia.[19] It is linked to Singapore by a narrow causeway and a bridge. The country also has maritime boundaries with Vietnam[162] and the Philippines.[163] The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Perlis River, the Golok River and the Pagalayan Canal, whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention.[19] Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia,[164] with the state of Sarawak dividing it into two parts. Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay archipelago.[165] The Strait of Malacca, lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce, carrying 40 per cent of the world's trade.[166]
The two parts of Malaysia, separated from each other by the South China Sea, share a largely similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and mountains.[19] Peninsular Malaysia, containing 40 per cent of Malaysia's land area,[165] extends 740km (460mi) from north to south, and its maximum width is 322km (200mi).[167] It is divided between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains,[168] rising to a peak elevation of 2,183 metres (7,162ft) at Mount Korbu,[169] part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula.[165] These mountains are heavily forested,[citation needed] and mainly composed of granite and other igneous rocks. Much of it has been eroded, creating a karst landscape.[165] The range is the origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia's river systems.[citation needed] The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 kilometres (31mi), and the peninsula's coastline is nearly 1,931km (1,200mi) long, although harbours are only available on the western side.[167]
East Malaysia, on the island of Borneo, has a coastline of 2,607km (1,620mi).[19] It is divided between coastal regions, hills and valleys, and a mountainous interior.[165] The Crocker Range extends northwards from Sarawak,[165] dividing the state of Sabah. It is the location of the 4,095m (13,435ft) high Mount Kinabalu,[170][171] the tallest mountain in Malaysia. Mount Kinabalu is located in the Kinabalu National Park, which is protected as one of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sitesin Malaysia.[172] The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia. Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves, the largest cave system in the world, in the Gunung Mulu National Park which is also a World Heritage Site.[165] The largest river in Malaysia is the Rajang.
Around these two halves of Malaysia are numerous islands, the largest of which is Banggi.[173] The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons.[167] The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans.[165] Humidity is usually high, and the average annual rainfall is 250cm (98in).[167] The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland, as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East. Local climates can be divided into three regions, highland, lowland, and coastal.[165]Climate change will cause sea level rise and increased rainfall, increasing flood risks and leading to droughts.[174]
Malaysia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1993, and became a party to the convention on 24 June 1994.[175] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 16 April 1998.[176] The country is megadiverse with a high number of species and high levels of endemism.[177] It is estimated to contain 20percent of the world's animal species.[178] High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo's mountains, as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest.[165]
There are about 210 mammal species in the country.[170] Over 620 species of birds have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia,[178] with many endemic to the mountains there. A high number of endemic bird species are also found in Malaysian Borneo.[165] 250 reptile species have been recorded in the country, with about 150 species of snakes[179] and 80 species of lizards.[170] There are about 150 species of frogs,[170] and thousands of insect species.[170] The Exclusive economic zone of Malaysia is 334,671km2 (129,217sqmi) and 1.5 times larger than its land area. It is mainly in the South China Sea.[180][181] Some of its waters are in the Coral Triangle, a biodiversity hotspot.[182] The waters around Sipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world.[178] Bordering East Malaysia, the Sulu Sea is a biodiversity hotspot, with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species.[183] The unique biodiversity of Malaysian Caves always attracts lovers of ecotourism from all over the world.[184]
Nearly 4,000 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species have been recorded from Malaysia. Of the two fungal groups with the largest number of species in Malaysia, the Ascomycota and their asexual states have been surveyed in some habitats (decaying wood, marine and freshwater ecosystems, as parasites of some plants, and as agents of biodegradation), but have not been or have been only poorly surveyed in other habitats (as endobionts, in soils, on dung, as human and animal pathogens); the Basidiomycota are only partly surveyed: bracket fungi, and mushrooms and toadstools have been studied, but Malaysian rust and smut fungi remain very poorly known. Without doubt, many more fungal species in Malaysia are yet to be recorded, and it is likely that many of those, when found, will be new to science.[185]
Some species of Rafflesia can grow up to 1m (3ft 3in) in diameter, making them the largest flowers in the world.
About twothirds of Malaysia was covered in forest as of 2007,[167] with some forests believed to be 130million years old.[170] The forests are dominated by dipterocarps.[186] Lowland forest covers areas below 760m (2,490ft),[167] and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest,[186] which is supported by its hot wet climate.[165] There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees.[170] Besides rainforests, there are over 1,425km2 (550sqmi) of mangroves in Malaysia,[167] and a large amount of peat forest. At higher altitudes, oaks, chestnuts, and rhododendrons replace dipterocarps.[165] There are an estimated 8,500 species of vascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia, with another 15,000 in the East.[187] The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around 2,000 tree species, and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world, with 240 different species of trees every hectare.[165] These forests host many members of the Rafflesia genus, the largest flowers in the world,[186] with a maximum diameter of 1m (3ft 3in).[188]
Logging, along with cultivation practices, has devastated tree cover, causing severe environmental degradation in the country. Over 80percent of Sarawak's rainforest has been logged.[165] Floods in East Malaysia have been worsened by the loss of trees, and over 60percent of the peninsula's forest have been cleared.[188] With current rates of deforestation, mainly for the palm oil industry, the forests are predicted to be extinct by 2020.[165][189]Deforestation is a major problem for animals, fungi and plants, having caused species such as Begonia eiromischa to go extinct.[190] Most remaining forest is found inside reserves and national parks.[188] Habitat destruction has proved a threat for marine life.[183]Illegal fishing is another major threat,[183] with fishing methods such as dynamite fishing and poisoning depleting marine ecosystems.[191]Leatherback turtle numbers have dropped 98percent since the 1950s.[179] Hunting has also been an issue for some animals,[188] with overconsumption and the use of animal parts for profit endangering many animals, from marine life[183] to tigers.[190] Marine life is also detrimentally affected by uncontrolled tourism.[192]
The Malaysian government aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection, but has been accused of favouring big business over the environment.[188] Some state governments are now trying to counter the environmental impact and pollution created by deforestation;[186] and the federal government is trying to cut logging by 10percent each year. A total of 28 national parks have been established, 23 in East Malaysia and five in the peninsula.[188] Tourism has been limited in biodiverse areas such as Sipadan island.[192]Wildlife trafficking is a large issue, and the Malaysian government has held talks with the governments of Brunei and Indonesia to standardise anti-trafficking laws.[193]
Malaysia is the world's 23rd-largest exporter and 25th-largest importer.[200][201] However, economic inequalities exist between different ethnic groups.[202] The Chinese make up about one-quarter of the population, but account for 70 per cent of the country's market capitalisation.[203] Chinese businesses in Malaysia are part of the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses in the Southeast Asian market sharing common family and cultural ties.[204]
International trade, facilitated by the shipping route in adjacent Strait of Malacca, and manufacturing are the key sectors.[205][206][207] Malaysia is an exporter of natural and agricultural resources, and petroleum is a major export.[52] Malaysia has once been the largest producer of tin,[208]rubber and palm oil in the world. Manufacturing has a large influence in the country's economy,[209] although Malaysia's economic structure has been moving away from it.[210] Malaysia remains one of the world's largest producers of palm oil.[211]
Tourism is the third-largest contributor to Malaysia's GDP, after the manufacturing and commodities sectors.[212] In 2019, the sector contributed about 15.9 per cent to the total GDP. According to the World Tourism Organization, Malaysia was the fourteenth-most visited country in the world, and the fourth-most visited country in Asia in 2019, with over 26.1 million visits.[213] Malaysia was ranked 38th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.[214] Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $19.8 billion.[213]
The country has developed into a centre of Islamic banking, and has the highest numbers of female workers in that industry.[215] Knowledge-based services are also expanding.[210] In 2020, Malaysia exported high-tech products worth $92.1 billion, the second-highest in ASEAN, after Singapore.[216] Malaysia was ranked 33rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, and 32nd in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2022.[217][218]
Malaysia's telecommunications network is second only to Singapore's in Southeast Asia, with 4.7million fixed-line subscribers and more than 30million cellular subscribers.[225][226] There are 200 industrial parks along with specialised parks such as Technology Park Malaysia and Kulim Hi-Tech Park.[227]Fresh water is available to over 95% of the population, with ground water accounting for 90% of the freshwater resources.[228][229] Although rural areas have been the focus of great development, they still lag behind areas such as the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia.[230] The telecommunication network, although strong in urban areas, is less available to the rural population.[225]
Malaysia's energy infrastructure sector is largely dominated by Tenaga Nasional, the largest electric utility company in Southeast Asia. Customers in Peninsular Malaysia are connected to electricity through the National Grid.[231] The other two electric utility companies in the country are Sarawak Energy and Sabah Electricity.[232] In 2013, Malaysia's total power generation capacity was over 29,728 megawatts. Total electricity generation was 140,985.01 GWh and total electricity consumption was 116,087.51 GWh.[233]Energy production in Malaysia is largely based on oil and natural gas, owing to Malaysia's oil and natural gas reserves, which are the fourth largest in the Asia-Pacific region.[234]
Population density (person per km ) in 2010The percentage distribution of Malaysian population by ethnic group based on 2010 census
According to the Malaysian Department of Statistics, the country's population was 32,447,385 in 2020,[235] making it the 42nd most populated country. According to a 2012 estimate, the population is increasing by 1.54 per cent per year. Malaysia has an average population density of 96 people per km2, ranking it 116th in the world for population density. People within the 15–64 age group constitute 69.5 per cent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponds to 24.5 per cent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 6.0 per cent. In 1960, when the first official census was recorded in Malaysia, the population was 8.11million. 91.8 per cent of the population are Malaysian citizens.[236]
Malaysian citizens are divided along local ethnic lines, with 69.7 per cent considered bumiputera.[237] The largest group of bumiputera are Malays, who are defined in the constitution as Muslims who practise Malay customs and culture. They play a dominant role politically.[238] Bumiputera status is also accorded to the non-Malay indigenous groups of Sabah and Sarawak: which includes Dayaks (Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu), Kadazan-Dusun, Melanau, Bajau and others. Non-Malay bumiputeras make up more than half of Sarawak's population and over two thirds of Sabah's population.[239][240] There are also indigenous or aboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsular, where they are collectively known as the Orang Asli.[241] Laws over who gets bumiputera status vary between states.[242]
There are also two other non-Bumiputera local ethnic groups. 22.8 per cent of the population are Malaysian Chinese, while 6.8 per cent are Malaysian Indian.[237] The local Chinese have historically been more dominant in the business community. Local Indians are mostly of Tamil descent.[243][244]Malaysian citizenship is not automatically granted to those born in Malaysia, but is granted to a child born of two Malaysian parents outside Malaysia. Dual citizenship is not permitted.[245] Citizenship in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship in Peninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chip identity card known as MyKad at the age of 12, and must carry the card at all times.[246]
The population is concentrated on Peninsular Malaysia,[247] where 20million out of approximately 28million Malaysians live.[52] 70 per cent of the population is urban.[19] Due to the rise in labour-intensive industries,[248] the country is estimated to have over 3million migrant workers; about 10 per cent of the population.[249] Sabah-based NGOs estimate that out of the 3million that make up the population of Sabah, 2million are illegal immigrants.[250] Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 171,500. Of this population, approximately 79,000 are from Burma, 72,400 from the Philippines, and 17,700 from Indonesia. Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia employs RELA, a volunteer militia with a history of controversies, to enforce its immigration law.[251]
Dominant religious confessions in Malaysia according to 2020 census: Dark green: Muslim majority > 50% Light green: Muslim plurality < 50% Blue: Christian majority > 50%
The constitution grants freedom of religion, while establishing Islam as the "religion of the Federation".[254][255] According to the Population and Housing Census 2020 figures, ethnicity and religious beliefs correlate highly. Approximately 63.5% of the population practise Islam, 18.7% practise Buddhism, 9.1% Christianity, 6.1% Hinduism and 1.3% practise Confucianism, Taoism and other traditional Chinese religions. 2.7% declared no religion or practised other religions or did not provide any information.[235] The states of Sarawak, Penang and the federal territory of Kuala Lumpur have non-Muslim majorities.[256][257]
Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence is the dominant branch of Islam in Malaysia,[258][259] while 18% are nondenominational Muslims.[260] The Malaysian constitution strictly defines what makes a "Malay", defining Malays as those who are Muslim, speak Malay regularly, practise Malay customs, and lived in or have ancestors from Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore.[165] Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 83.6% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (3.4%) and Christianity (11.1%), along with small Muslim populations in areas like Penang. The majority of the Indian population follows Hinduism (86.2%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (6.0%) or Muslims (4.1%). Christianity is the predominant religion of the non-Malay bumiputera community (46.5%), while 40.4% identify as Muslims.[235]
Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions of Syariah Courts (i.e. Shariah courts) in matters concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow the Shafi'i legal school of Islam, which is the main madh'hab of Malaysia.[258] The jurisdiction of Syariah courts is limited to Muslims in matters such as marriage, inheritance, divorce, apostasy, religious conversion, and custody among others. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Syariah courts, which have a similar hierarchy to the civil courts. The civil courts do not hear matters related to Islamic practices.[261]
The official and national language of Malaysia is Malaysian Malay,[19] a standardised form of the Malay language.[262] The previous official terminology was Bahasa Malaysia (lit.'Malaysian language')[263][264][265] but now government policy uses "Bahasa Melayu" (Malay language) to refer to the official language[266] and both terms remain in use.[267][268] The National Language Act 1967 specifies the Latin (Rumi) script as the official script of the national language, but does not prohibit the use of the traditional Jawi script.[269]
English remains an active second language, with its use allowed for some official purposes under the National Language Act of 1967.[269] In Sarawak, English is an official state language alongside Malay.[270][271][272] Historically, English was the de facto administrative language; Malay became predominant after the 1969 race riots (13 May incident).[273]Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived from British English. Malaysian English is widely used in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese, and Tamil influences. The government discourages the use of non-standard Malay but has no power to issue compounds or fines to those who use what is perceived as improper Malay on their advertisements.[274][275]
Many other languages are used in Malaysia, which contains speakers of 137 living languages.[276] Peninsular Malaysia contains speakers of 41 of these languages.[277] The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages which are related to, but easily distinguishable from, Malay. Iban is the main tribal language in Sarawak while Dusunic and Kadazan languages are spoken by the natives in Sabah.[278] Chinese Malaysians predominantly speak Chinese dialects from the southern part of China. The more common Chinese varieties in the country are Mandarin, Cantonese, Hokkien, and so on.[279] The Tamil language is used predominantly by the majority of Malaysian Indians.[280] A small number of Malaysians have European ancestry and speak creole languages, such as the Portuguese-based Malaccan Creoles,[281] and the Spanish-based Chavacano language.[282]
Malaysia operates an efficient and widespread two-tier healthcare system, consisting of a universal healthcare system and a co-existing private healthcare system; provided by highly subsidized healthcare through its extensive network of public hospitals and clinics.[283] The Ministry of Health is the main provider of healthcare services to the country's population.[284] Malaysia's healthcare system is considered to be among the most developed in Asia, which contributes to its thriving medical tourism industry.[285]
In 2021, the principal cause of death among Malaysian adults was coronary artery disease, representing 17% of the medically certified deaths in 2020—being followed by pneumonia; which accounted for 11% of the deaths.[292]Transport accidents are considered a major health hazard, as Malaysia, relative to its population, has one of the highest traffic fatality rates in the world.[293]Smoking is also considered a major health issue across the country.[294]
The education system of Malaysia features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six years of compulsory primary education, and five years of optional secondary education.[295] Schools in the primary education system are divided into two categories: national primary schools, which teach in Malay, and vernacular schools, which teach in Chinese or Tamil.[296] Secondary education is conducted for five years. In the final year of secondary education, students sit for the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination.[297] Since the introduction of the matriculation programme in 1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges can enroll in local universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10 per cent of places are open to non-bumiputera[jargon] students.[298]
Malaysia has a multi-ethnic, multicultural, and multilingual society. Substantial influence exists from Chinese and Indian culture, dating back to when foreign trade began. Other cultural influences include the Persian, Arabic, and British cultures. Due to the structure of the government, coupled with the social contract theory, there has been minimal cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities.[299] Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring countries, notably Indonesia.[300]
In 1971, the government created a "National Cultural Policy", defining Malaysian culture. It stated that Malaysian culture must be based on the culture of the indigenous peoples of Malaysia, that it may incorporate suitable elements from other cultures, and that Islam must play a part in it.[301] It also promoted the Malay language above others.[302] This government intervention into culture has caused resentment among non-Malays who feel their cultural freedom was lessened. Both Chinese and Indian associations have submitted memorandums to the government, accusing it of formulating an undemocratic culture policy.[301]
A craftsman making batik. Malaysian batik is usually patterned with floral motifs with light colouring.
Traditional Malaysian art was mainly centred on the areas of carving, weaving, and silversmithing.[303] Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the Malay courts. Common artworks included ornamental kris, beetle nut sets, and woven batik and songket fabrics. Indigenous East Malaysians are known for their wooden masks.[165] Each ethnic group have distinct performing arts, with little overlap between them. However, Malay art does show some North Indian influence due to the historical influence of India.[304]
Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influences from India, China, Thailand, and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments,[304] the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums.[305] Drums and other traditional percussion instruments and are often made from natural materials.[305] Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and occasions such as a harvest.[304] It was once used as a form of long-distance communication.[305] In East Malaysia, gong-based musical ensembles such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings.[306] These ensembles are also common in neighbouring regions such as in Mindanao in the Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia, and Brunei.[306]
Malaysia has a strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing, and continues today. Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition, influenced by pre-existing oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam.[307] The first Malay literature was in the Arabic script. The earliest known Malay writing is on the Terengganu stone, made in 1303.[165] Chinese and Indian literature became common as the numbers of speakers increased in Malaysia, and locally produced works based in languages from those areas began to be produced in the 19th century.[307] English has also become a common literary language.[165] In 1971, the government took the step of defining the literature of different languages. Literature written in Malay was called "the national literature of Malaysia", literature in other bumiputera languages was called "regional literature", while literature in other languages was called "sectional literature".[302] Malay poetry is highly developed, and uses many forms. The Hikayat form is popular, and the pantun has spread from Malay to other languages.[307]
Malaysia's cuisine reflects the multi-ethnic makeup of its population.[310] Many cultures from within the country and from surrounding regions have greatly influenced the cuisine. Much of the influence comes from the Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran cultures,[165] largely due to the country being part of the ancient spice route.[311] The cuisine is very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei,[188] and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine.[165] The different states have varied dishes,[188] and often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes.[244]
Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another; for example, Chinese restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malay dishes.[312] Food from one culture is sometimes also cooked using styles taken from another culture,[188] For example, sambal belacan (shrimp paste) are commonly used as ingredients by Chinese restaurants to create the stir fried water spinach (kangkung belacan).[313] This means that although much of Malaysian food can be traced back to a certain culture, they have their own identity.[311] Rice is a staple food, and an important constituent of the country's culture.[314] Chili is commonly found in local cuisine, although this does not necessarily make them spicy.[310]
Malaysia's main newspapers are owned by the government and political parties in the ruling coalition,[315][316] although some major opposition parties also have their own, which are openly sold alongside regular newspapers. A divide exists between the media in the two halves of the country. Peninsular-based media gives low priority to news from the East, and often treats the eastern states as colonies of the peninsula.[317] As a result of this, East Malaysia region of Sarawak launched TV Sarawak as internet streaming beginning in 2014, and as TV station on 10 October 2020[318] to overcome the low priority and coverage of Peninsular-based media and to solidify the representation of East Malaysia.[319] The media have been blamed for increasing tension between Indonesia and Malaysia, and giving Malaysians a bad image of Indonesians.[320] The country has Malay, English, Chinese, and Tamil dailies.[317] Kadazandusun and Bajau news are only available via TV broadcast Berita RTM.[321] Written Kadazan news was once included in publications such as The Borneo Post, the Borneo Mail, the Daily Express, and the New Sabah Times, but publication has ceased with the newspaper or as a section.[322][323]
Freedom of the press is limited, with numerous restrictions on publishing rights and information dissemination.[324] The government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers before elections.[316] In 2007, a government agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders,[325] a move condemned by politicians from the opposition Democratic Action Party.[326] Sabah, where all tabloids but one are independent of government control, has the freest press in Malaysia.[317] Laws such as the Printing Presses and Publications Act have also been cited as curtailing freedom of expression.[327]
Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year. Some are federally gazetted public holidays and some are observed by individual states. Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups, and the main holiday of each major group has been declared a public holiday. The most observed national holiday is Hari Merdeka (Independence Day) on 31 August, commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya in 1957.[165]Malaysia Day on 16 September commemorates federation in 1963.[328] Other notable national holidays are Labour Day (1 May) and the King's birthday (first week of June).[165]
Muslim holidays are prominent as Islam is the state religion; Hari Raya Puasa (also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri, Malay for Eid al-Fitr), Hari Raya Haji (also called Hari Raya Aidiladha, Malay for Eid al-Adha), Maulidur Rasul (birthday of the Prophet), and others being observed.[165] Malaysian Chinese celebrate festivals such as Chinese New Year and others relating to traditional Chinese beliefs. Wesak Day is observed and celebrated by Buddhists. Hindus in Malaysia celebrate Deepavali, the festival of lights,[329] while Thaipusam is a religious rite which sees pilgrims from all over the country converge at the Batu Caves.[330] Malaysia's Christian community celebrates most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere, most notably Christmas and Easter. In addition to this, the Dayak community in Sarawak celebrate a harvest festival known as Gawai,[331] and the Kadazandusun community celebrate Kaamatan.[332] Despite most festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group, celebrations are universal. In a custom known as "open house" Malaysians participate in the celebrations of others, often visiting the houses of those who identify with the festival.[227]
The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953, and received recognition by the IOC in 1954. It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games. The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, and has participated in all but one Olympic games since its inception. The largest number of athletes ever sent to the Olympics was 57 to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games.[342] Besides the Olympic Games, Malaysia also participates in the Paralympic Games.[343] Malaysia has competed at the Commonwealth Games since 1950 as Malaya, and 1966 as Malaysia, and the games were hosted in Kuala Lumpur in 1998.[344][345]
↑ Section 9 of the National Language Act 1963/67 states that "The script of the national language shall be the Rumi script: provided that this shall not prohibit the use of the Malay script, more commonly known as the Jawi script, of the national language".
↑ Section 2 of the National Language Act 1963/67 states that "Save as provided in this Act and subject to the safeguards contained in Article 152(1) of the Constitution relating to any other language and the language of any other community in Malaysia the national language shall be used for official purposes".
↑ In English, the official name of the country is simply "Malaysia". In Malay, the name of the country as it appears on some official documents, including the oath of Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Persekutuan Malaysia, meaning "Federation of Malaysia". Despite this, the name Malaysia is mostly used officially, including the Malaysia Agreement 1963 and the Federal Constitution.[40]
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The indigenous languages of Malaysia belong to the Mon-Khmer and Malayo-Polynesian families. The national, or official, language is Malay which is the mother tongue of the majority Malay ethnic group. The main ethnic groups within Malaysia are the Malays, Chinese and Tamils, with many other ethnic groups represented in smaller numbers, each with its own languages. The largest native languages spoken in East Malaysia are the Iban, Dusunic, and Kadazan languages. English is widely understood and spoken within the urban areas of the country; the English language is a compulsory subject in primary and secondary education. It is also the main medium of instruction within most private colleges and private universities. English may take precedence over Malay in certain official contexts as provided for by the National Language Act, especially in the states of Sabah and Sarawak, where it may be the official working language. Furthermore, the law of Malaysia is commonly taught and read in English, as the unwritten laws of Malaysia continue to be partially derived from pre-1957 English common law, which is a legacy of past British colonisation of the constituents forming Malaysia. In addition, authoritative versions of constitutional law and statutory law are continuously available in both Malay and English.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Malaysia:
Peninsular Malaysia, historically known as Malaya, also known as West Malaysia or the "Malaysian Peninsula", is the western part of Malaysia that comprises the southern part of the Malay Peninsula on Mainland Southeast Asia and the nearby islands. Its area totals approximately 132,490 km2 (51,150 sq mi), which is nearly 40% of the total area of the country; the other 60% is in East Malaysia on the island of Borneo.
Bruneian Malays are a native Malay ethnic group that lives in Brunei, the federal territory of Labuan, the southwestern coast of Sabah and the northern parts of Sarawak. The Bruneian Malays are a subgroup of the larger ethnic Malay population found in the other parts of the Malay World, namely Peninsular Malaysia and the central and southern areas of Sarawak including neighbouring lands such as Singapore, Indonesia and Southern Thailand, having visible differences especially in language and culture, even though they are ethnically related to each other and follow the teachings of Islam. All Bruneian Malays who are born or domiciled in East Malaysia even for generations before or after the independence of the states of Sabah and Sarawak from the British Empire through the formation of Malaysia in 1963 are also considered Malaysian Malays in the national census and were in the same status like the Malaysian Malays domiciled in Peninsular Malaysian states and the central and southern parts of Sarawak. They are also defined as a part of the Bumiputera racial classification together as a subgroup within the Malaysian Malay ethnic population along with the Kadazan-Dusuns, Orang Ulu, Ibans, Malaccan Portuguese, Muruts, Orang Sungai, Bajau, Suluks and the Malaysian Siamese.
The history of Sabah can be traced back to about 23–30,000 years ago when evidence suggests the earliest human settlement in the region existed. The history is interwoven with the history of Brunei and the history of Malaysia, which Sabah was previously part of and is currently part of respectively. The earliest recorded history of Sabah being part of any organised civilisation began in the early 15th century during the thriving era of the Sultanate of Brunei. Prior to this, early inhabitants of the land lived in predominantly tribal societies, although such tribal societies had continued to exist until the 1900s. The eastern part of Sabah was ceded to the Sultan of Sulu by the Sultan of Brunei in 1658 for the former helping a victory over Brunei enemies, but many sources stated it had not been ceded at all. By the late 19th century, both territories previously owned by Sultan of Brunei and Sultan of Sulu was granted to British syndicate and later emerged as British North Borneo under the management of the North Borneo Chartered Company. Sabah became a protectorate of the United Kingdom in 1888 and subsequently became a Crown colony from 1946 until 1963, during which time it was known as Crown Colony of North Borneo. On 16 September 1963, Sabah merged with Malaya, Sarawak and Singapore to form Malaysia.
The Malaysia Agreement, or the Agreement relating to Malaysia between United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore (MA63) was a legal document which agreed to combine North Borneo (Sabah), Sarawak, and Singapore with the existing states of Malaya, the resulting union being named Malaysia. Signed in London, United Kingdom, the agreement has been in effect since 16 September 1963; Singapore was subsequently expelled from Malaysia not long after this agreement, becoming a sovereign state on 9 August 1965.
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$1.306 trillion [13] (30th)
40.7 [14] 
