Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Head-office Building, Jeddah
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC; Arabic: منظمة التعاون الإسلامي, romanized:Munaẓẓamat at-Taʿāwun al-ʾIslāmī; French: Organisation de la coopération islamique), formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1969. It consists of 57 member states, 48 of which are Muslim-majority.[1] The organisation claims to be "the collective voice of the Muslim world" and works to "safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony".[2]
Member states had a collective population of over 1.8 billion as of 2015,[1] accounting for just under a quarter of the world's population. The collective area is 31.66 m km2.[3]
History
On 21 August 1969, a fire was started in the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Amin al-Husseini, the former Mufti of Jerusalem, called the arson a "Jewish crime" and called for all Muslim heads of state to convene a summit.[4] The fire, which "destroyed part of the old wooden roof and an 800-year-old pulpit"[5] was blamed on the mental illness of perpetrator Australian Christian fundamentalist Denis Michael Rohan–by Israel, and on Zionists and Zionism by the Islamic conference.[6]
On 25 September 1969, an Islamic Conference, a summit of representatives of 24 Muslim majority countries (most representatives were heads of state), was held in Rabat, Morocco.[4][2] A resolution was passed stating:
Muslim governments would consult with a view to promoting among themselves close cooperation and mutual assistance in the economic, scientific, cultural and spiritual fields, inspired by the immortal teachings of Islam.[4]
In March 1970, the First Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers was held in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.[6] In 1972, the Organisation of the Islamic Conference was founded.[7]
While the al-Aqsa fire is regarded as one of the catalysts, many Muslims aspired to a pan-Islamic institution that would serve the common political, economic, and social interests of the ummah (Muslim community) beginning in the 19th century. In particular, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate after World War I left a vacuum.[citation needed]
According to its charter, the OIC aims to preserve Islamic social and economic values; promote solidarity amongst member states; increase cooperation in social, economic, cultural, scientific, and political areas; uphold international peace and security; and advance education, particularly in science and technology.[2]
The OIC emblem contains three main elements that reflect its vision and mission as incorporated in its Charter: the Kaaba, the Globe, and the Crescent.[citation needed]
On 5 August 1990, 45 foreign ministers of the OIC adopted the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam to provide guidance in matters of human rights in as much as they are compatible with Sharia (Quranic Law).[8]
In March 2008, the OIC revised its charter to promote human rights, fundamental freedoms, and good governance in member states. The revisions removed any mention of the Cairo Declaration. Within the revised charter, the OIC supported the Charter of the United Nations and international law, without mentioning the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[10]
On 28 June 2011, during the 38th Council of Foreign Ministers meeting (CFM) in Astana, Kazakhstan, the organisation changed its name from Organisation of the Islamic Conference (Arabic: منظمة المؤتمر الإسلامي; French: Organisation de la Conférence Islamique) to its current name.[11] The OIC also changed its logo at this time.[citation needed]
According to the UNHCR, OIC countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010. OIC members continued to absorb refugees from other conflicts, including 2011 uprising in Syria. In May 2012, the OIC addressed these concerns at the "Refugees in the Muslim World" conference in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.[12]
On 27 June 2007, then-United States President George W. Bush announced that the United States would delegate an envoy to the OIC. Bush said of the envoy, "Our special envoy will listen to and learn from representatives from Muslim states, and will share with them America's views and values."[13]As of June 2015[update], Arsalan Suleman is acting special envoy. He was appointed on 13 February 2015.[14] In an investigation of the accuracy of a series of chain emails, Snopes.com reported that during the October 2003–April 2004 session of the General Assembly, 17 individual members of the OIC voted against the United States 88% of the time.[15]
The OIC, on 28 March 2008, joined the criticism of the film Fitna by Dutch lawmaker Geert Wilders, which features disturbing images of violent acts juxtaposed with alleged verses from the Quran.[19]
At a 2013 meeting in Conakry, Guinea, Secretary-General Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu said that foreign ministers would discuss the possibility of cutting ties with any state that recognised Jerusalem as the capital of Israel or that moves its embassy to its environs.[24]
At a December 2017 extraordinary meeting held in response US President Donald Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem, the "Istanbul Declaration on Freedom for Al Quds". was adopted.[25]
Pakistan cites its conflict with India over the Kashmir region as its rationale. It frequently accuses India of perpetrating human rights abuses against Kashmiris in the Indian-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The region has experienced an ongoing militant uprising since the 1980s.[33] The OIC has been urged to press India on the Kashmir dispute, and has faced pushback from Indian officials for occasional references to Jammu and Kashmir.[30] Historically, the Muslim world has largely lent its support to Pakistan on the issue.
The first OIC summit held in 1969 in Rabat did not address the dispute, while granting India membership was discussed. The head of the Indian delegation addressed the summit. The erstwhile President of Pakistan, Yahya Khan, reportedly expressed mixed views. The Indian delegation, led by then Indian PresidentFakhruddin Ali Ahmad, was scheduled to attend the summit but ultimately was not allowed in due to Pakistan's controversial boycott threat. Differences between the two states led Pakistan to keep India out for the final session of the 1969 conference and all OIC subsequent summits.[34]
After these events, Indian Foreign MinisterSushma Swaraj was invited to participate in an OIC summit.[35] However, Pakistan protested this development and demanded that India be blocked from the event, accusing the latter of an unprovoked violation of Pakistani airspace while Indian officials claimed that the strike was carried out on terrorist-training camps.[36][37] Following requests by Pakistan shortly after the 14 February attack, the OIC held an emergency meeting on 26 February.[38] The organization subsequently condemned India's military response to the attack and advised both sides to exercise restraint.[39]
For the first time in five decades, the United Arab Emirates invited India as a "guest of honour" to attend the inaugural plenary 46th meeting of OIC foreign ministers in Abu Dhabi on 1 and 2 March 2019, overriding protests by Pakistan.[40] In response Pakistan boycotted the meeting. Indian Foreign Minister Swaraj headed the Indian delegation at the summit.
On 18 April 2020, OIC issued a statement, urging the Modi administration of India to take urgent steps to "stop the growing tide of Islamophobia", citing attacks by Hindu nationalists against Indian Muslims and the allegation against Muslims of spreading COVID-19 in the country.[41]
Cartoons of Muhammad, published in a Danish newspaper in September 2005, offended a number of Muslims. The Third Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference in December 2005 condemned publication of the cartoons, resulting in broader coverage of the issue by news media in Muslim countries. Subsequently, violent demonstrations throughout the Islamic world resulted in multiple deaths.[42]
Human rights
OIC created the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam.[8] Proponents claim it is not an alternative to the UDHR, but rather complementary to it. Article 24 states that "all the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic Shari'ah" and Article 25 follows with "the Islamic Shari'ah is the only source of reference for the explanation or clarification of any of the articles of this Declaration." Attempts to have it adopted by the United Nations Human Rights Council met criticism, because of its contradiction of the UDHR, including from liberal Muslim groups.[43] Critics of the CDHR state bluntly that it is "manipulation and hypocrisy," "designed to dilute, if not altogether eliminate, civil and political rights protected by international law" and attempts to "circumvent these principles [of freedom and equality]."[44][45][46]
Human Rights Watch says that OIC "fought doggedly" and successfully within the United Nations Human Rights Council to shield states from criticism, except criticism of Israel. For example, when independent experts reported violations of human rights in the 2006 Lebanon War, "state after state from the OIC took the floor to denounce the experts for daring to look beyond Israeli violations to discuss Hezbollah's as well. OIC demands that the council "should work cooperatively with abusive governments rather than condemn them." HRW responded that this works with those who are willing to cooperate; others exploit the passivity.[47][48]
Along with OIC's 2008 charter revisions, the member states created the Independent Permanent Human Rights Commission (IPHRC). The IPHRC is an advisory body, independent from OIC, composed of eighteen individuals from diverse educational and professional backgrounds. IPHRC has the power to monitor human rights within the member states and facilitates the integration of human rights into all OIC mandates. IPHRC also aids in the promotion of political, civil, and economic rights in all member states.[50]
In December 2018, the OIC tentatively raised the issue of China's Xinjiang internment camps and human rights abuses against the Uyghurs.[52] The OIC reversed its position after a visit to Xinjiang, and in March 2019, the OIC issued a report on human rights for Muslim minorities that praised China for "providing care to its Muslim citizens" and looked forward to greater cooperation with the PRC.[53][54] In December 2020 a coalition of American Muslim groups criticized OIC for failing to speak up to prevent the abuse of the Uyghurs and accused member states of being influenced by Chinese power. The groups included the Council on American-Islamic Relations.[55]
In March 2012, the United Nations Human Rights Council held its first discussion of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, following the 2011 passage of a resolution supporting LGBT rights proposed by the Republic of South Africa.[56] Pakistan's representative addressed the session on behalf of the OIC, denouncing the discussion and questioning the concept of sexual orientation, which he said promoted "licentious behaviour... against the fundamental teachings of various religions, including Islam". He stated that the council should not discuss the topic again. Most Arab countries and some African countries walked out of the session.[57][58][59]
The Astana Declaration is a policy guidance adopted by OIC members at the Astana Summit. The Astana Declaration commits members to increase investment in science and technology, education, eradicate extreme poverty, and implement UN Sustainable Development Goals.[64]
Non-state terrorism
In 1999, OIC adopted the OIC Convention on Combatting International Terrorism.[65] Human Rights Watch reported that the definition of terrorism in article 1 describes "any act or threat of violence carried out with the aim of, among other things, imperiling people’s honour, occupying or seizing public or private property, or threatening the stability, territorial integrity, political unity or sovereignty of a state." HRW described this as vague, ill-defined, and including much that is outside the generally accepted concept of terrorism. In HRW's view, it labels, or could easily be used to label, as terrorist actions, acts of peaceful expression, association, and assembly.[66]
Legal scholar Ben Saul argued that the definition is subjective and ambiguous and concluded that it left a "serious danger of the abusive use of terrorist prosecutions against political opponents" and others.[67]
HRW is concerned by OIC's apparent unwillingness to recognise as terrorism acts that serve causes endorsed by their member states. Article 2 reads: "Peoples' struggle including armed struggle against foreign occupation, aggression, colonialism, and hegemony, aimed at liberation and self-determination." HRW suggested that OIC embrace "longstanding and universally recognised international human rights standards",[66] a request that has not led to any results.[citation needed]
During a meeting in Malaysia in April 2002, delegates discussed terrorism but failed to reach a definition of it. They rejected, however, any description of the Palestinian fight with Israel as terrorism. Their declaration was explicit: "We reject any attempt to link terrorism to the struggle of the Palestinian people in the exercise of their inalienable right to establish their independent state with Al-Quds Al-Shrif (Jerusalem) as its capital." In fact, at the outset of the meeting, the OIC countries signed a statement praising the Palestinians and their "blessed intifada." The word terrorism was restricted to describe Israel, whom they condemned for "state terrorism" in their war with the Palestinian people.[68]
At the 34th Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers (ICFM), an OIC section, in May 2007, the foreign ministers termed Islamophobia "the worst form of terrorism".[69]
Dispute with Thailand
Thailand responded to OIC criticism of human rights abuses in the Muslim majority provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat in the south of the country. In a statement issued on 18 October 2005, secretary-general Ihsanoglu vocalised concern over the continuing conflict in the south that "claimed the lives of innocent people and forced the migration of local people out of their places".[70] He stressed that the Thai government's security approach to the crisis would aggravate the situation and lead to continued violence.
On 18–19 April 2009, exiled Patani leader Abu Yasir Fikri was invited to the OIC to speak about the conflict and present a proposal to end the violence between the Thai government and the ethnically Malay Muslims living in the neglected south. The group has been struggling against Thai assimilation policy and for self governance since the area was annexed by Thailand in 1902. Fikri presented a six-point solution at the conference that included obtaining the same basic rights as other groups when it came to rights of language, religion, and culture. He suggested that Thailand give up its discriminatory policies against the Patani people and allow Patani to at least be allowed the same self-governing rights as other regions in Thailand, citing that this does not go against the Thai constitution since it had been done in other parts of Thailand.[71] He criticised the Thai government's escalation of violence by arming and creating Buddhist militia groups and questioned their intentions. He added that Thai policies of not investigating corruption, murder, and human rights violations perpetrated by Bangkok-led administration and military personnel was an obstacle for achieving peace and healing the deep wounds of "third-class" citizens.[71][72]
Thai foreign ministerKantathi Suphamongkhon said in response: "We have made it clear to the OIC several times that the violence in the deep South is not caused by religious conflict and the government grants protection to all of our citizens no matter what religion they embrace." The Foreign Ministry issued a statement dismissing the OIC's criticism and accusing it of disseminating misperceptions and misinformation about the situation in the southern provinces. "If the OIC secretariat really wants to promote the cause of peace and harmony in the three southern provinces of Thailand, the responsibility falls on the OIC secretariat to strongly condemn the militants, who are perpetrating these acts of violence against both Thai Muslims and Thai Buddhists."[70][73][74] HRW[75] and Amnesty International[72] offsered the same concerns as OIC, rebuffing Thailand's attempts to dismiss the issue.
Notable meetings
Various OIC meetings have attracted global attention.
Ninth meeting of PUOICM
The ninth meeting of Parliamentary Union of the OIC member states (PUOICM) was held on 15 and 16 February 2007 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[76] The speaker of Malaysia's House of Representatives, Ramli bin Ngah Talib, spoke at the inaugural ceremony. One main agenda item was stopping Israel from continuing its excavation at the Western Wall of the Temple Mount / Masjid Al-Aqsa, Islam's third holiest site.[77] OIC also discussed how it might send peacekeeping troops to Muslim states, as well as the possibility of a name change and charter changes.[77] Return of the sovereignty right to the Iraqi people along with withdrawal of foreign troops from Iraq was another one of the main agenda items.[78]
Pakistani Foreign Minister Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri stated on 14 February that the secretary general of OIC and foreign ministers of seven "like-minded Muslim countries" would meet in Islamabad on 25 February following meetings of President Musharraf with the heads of Muslim countries to discuss "a new initiative" for the resolution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[79]
The September 2014's high-level Summit of the OIC, in New York, ended without adopting any resolutions or conclusions, for the first time in several years, due to a dispute regarding the status of one of its Observer states. Egypt, Iran and the United Arab Emirates demanded that the OIC remove the term 'Turkish Cypriot State' in reference to the unrecognized Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which had observer status within the organization. Egypt's president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi insisted that any reference to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus or Turkish Cypriot State" was unacceptable and was ultimately the reason for the OIC not adopting any resolutions or conclusions in the 2014 summit.[81][82][83]
On 5 August 2024 Iran called for an emergency meeting of the OIC on 7 August because it wanted to drum up support for its war against Israel in the wake of the Tehran assassination of Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh.[85][86]Jeddah, Saudi Arabia hosted the meeting, and Iran's foreign minister Ali Bagheri said Ayatollah Khomeini has no other choice but to use his right to self-defense. Other participants raised concerns about a wider regional conflict and Bagheri's motion failed to carry.[87]
The largest meeting, attended by the heads of state and government of the member states, convenes every three years.[clarification needed] The Islamic Summit takes policy decisions and provide guidance on all issues pertaining to the realisation of the objectives as provided in the Charter and consider other issues of concern to the Member States and the Ummah.[90]
Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers meets once a year to examine a progress report on the implementation of its decisions taken within the framework of the policy defined by the Islamic Summit.
The Secretary General is elected by the Council of Foreign Ministers for a term of five years, with a maximum of two terms. The Secretary-General is elected from among nationals of the Member States in accordance with the principles of equitable geographical distribution, rotation and equal opportunity for all Member States with due consideration to competence, integrity and experience.[92]
Permanent Secretariat
The Permanent Secretariat is the executive organ of the Organisation, entrusted with the implementation of the decisions of the two preceding bodies, and is located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
OIC has been criticised by many Muslims for its lack of engagement and solutions for Muslim countries in crisis.[94] It is said to have made progress in social and academic terms but not politically.[94]
In 2020, Pakistan's Minister of Foreign Affairs SM Qureshi criticized OIC for its stand with regard to Kashmir issue.[95]
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organization established by China and Russia in 2001. It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 24% of the area of world and 42% of the world population. As of 2024, its combined nominal GDP accounts for around 23%, while its GDP based on PPP comprises approximately 36% of the world's total.
The Islamic Development Bank is a multilateral development finance institution that is focused on Islamic finance for infrastructure development and located in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. There are 57 shareholding member states with the largest single shareholder being Saudi Arabia.
The Muslim World League is an international Islamic non-governmental organization based in Mecca, Saudi Arabia that promotes what it calls the true message of Islam by advancing moderate values.
Ekmeleddin Mehmet İhsanoğlu is a Turkish chemistry and science history professor, academician, diplomat and politician who was Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) from 2004 to 2014. He is also an author and editor of academic journals and advocate of intercultural dialogue.
The Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) is an inter-governmental forum for enhancing cooperation towards promoting peace, security and stability in Asia. It is a forum based on the recognition that there is a close link between peace, security and stability in Asia and in the rest of the world. The key idea of the Conference is based on the priority of the indivisibility of security, joint initiative and mutually beneficial interaction of small and large states.
International Islamic Fiqh Academy is an international Islamic institution for the advanced study of Islamic jurisprudence and law based in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. It was founded following a resolution by the Third Islamic Summit Conference of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, held in Mecca, that called for the establishment of an Islamic Fiqh Academy. The International Islamic Fiqh Academy was established in June 1983 as a subsidiary organ of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. It consists of 57 member states and representatives.
Pakistan continues to enjoy a privileged status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. In terms of population, it is the OIC's second largest member. Pakistan is the only Muslim country to have detonated nuclear weapons, has the sixth-largest standing military force in the world and a large labour workforce working in various Muslim countries.
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation founded in 1969 has 57 members, 56 of which are also member states of the United Nations, with 48 countries being Muslim majority countries. Some member countries, especially in West Africa and South America, such as Ivory Coast, Guyana, Gabon, Mozambique, Nigeria, Suriname, Togo and Uganda – though with large Muslim populations – are not necessarily Muslim majority countries. A few countries with significant Muslim populations, such as Russia and Thailand, sit as Observer States.
The Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit was a conference organised by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in Mecca on 14 and 15 August 2012. The venue of the conference was Al Safa Palace.
The Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition (IMCTC) is an intergovernmental counter-terrorist military alliance between 42 member states in the Muslim world, united around the war against the Islamic State and other counter-terrorist activities. Its creation was first announced by Saudi Arabian defence minister Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud, on 15 December 2015. The alliance was to have a joint operations center in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
In 1991, Azerbaijan joined the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and started to build relations with the organization. As a result, the ambassador of Azerbaijan to Saudi Arabia was given a mandate of permanent representative of Azerbaijan to the General Secretariat of the OIC in May 1994.
The Sixth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit was a conference organized by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in Istanbul on 13 December 2017. This summit resulted "Istanbul Declaration on Freedom for Al Quds."
The Council of Foreign Ministers, formerly known as Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers, is the main decision-making body of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation consisting one representative from each member states of the OIC. It is the largest decision-oriented intergovernmental organization that holds conferences every year called Islamic Summit pertaining to the issues concerning Muslim nations and the OIC's agenda. The 48th summit is scheduled to be held in Islamabad, Pakistan on 22 March 2022.
The Independent Permanent Human Rights Commission is a human rights agency and one of the principal organs of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation advocating for human rights within the scope of its 57 member states. It takes activities as an independent commission of the OIC and also advises its policymaking bodies and decision-making authority within the framework of human rights and fundamental rights.
Al-Quds Committee, also known by its affiliated arm name adopted in 1995, Bayt Mal Al Quds Agency, is an intergovernmental organization and one of the four standing committees of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation established in July 1975. It is focused on cultural, political, social, religious and human rights issues in Jerusalem caused by the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Its principles are predominantly focused on the protection of Al-Aqsa, and cultural heritage of the city in addition to serving as an advocacy agency specialized in humanitarian and social works, concerning health, education housing children's as well as women's rights.
The Charter of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, commonly known as OIC Charter, is the foundational treaty of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Its foundational principles are based on 18 chapters that objectively maintains the purpose, focus, functions, and foundation of the OIC, an intergovernmental organization founded in 1969. The charter was formally signed on 25 September 1969 by the 57 member states, including 5 observer states. However, it was revised by the 11th summit held in Dakar, Senegal on 14 March 2008.
The Ninth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference was organized by the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in response to the 2023 Israel–Hamas war. The meeting took place on 18 October 2023 at the General Secretariat headquarters in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
The Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference was an event organized by the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) on 18 May 2018 in Istanbul, Turkey. The conference was organized in response to the serious developments in the State of Palestine.
The Fifith Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference was held from 6–7 March 2016 in Jakarta, Indonesia. The heads of the 57 member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), including notable figures such as the Vice President of Indonesia, Muhammad Jusuf Kalla, and Sudan’s President Omar al-Bashir participated in the summit. The conference aimed to address various pressing issues affecting the Muslim world, including internal and external conflicts in the Middle East, radicalism, and current terrorism. The summit also reaffirmed support for Palestine and called for an international ban on products from Israeli settlements in the West Bank.
↑ Orakzai, S. (April 2010). "Organisation of The Islamic Conference and Conflict Resolution: Case Study of the Kashmir Dispute". Pakistan Horizon. 63 (2: Security Concerns in South and West Asia): 83–94. JSTOR24711087.
↑ Sager, Abdulaziz (10 October 2009). "Why not India in OIC". Kjaleej Times. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 1 March 2019.
↑ Orakzai, Saira Bano (2010). "Organisation of The Islamic Conference and Conflict Resolution: Case Study of the Kashmir Dispute". Pakistan Horizon. 63 (2): 83–94. ISSN0030-980X. JSTOR24711087.
↑ "Blog". 元カノ復縁しつこい รวบรวมประวัติและวัฒนธรรมมุสลิมอินเดีย (in Thai). Archived from the original on 6 November 2006. Retrieved 18 May 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
↑ OIC says «NO» to «Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus»
↑ Al Arabiya reporters. (11 November 2023). "Arab, Muslim leaders slam Israel at Saudi-hosted summit on Gaza". Al Arabiya English Retrieved 24 November 2023.
↑ "Islamic Universities". Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. 7 December 2021. Archived from the original on 2 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2022.
Al-Huda, Qamar. "Organisation of the Islamic Conference". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Edited by Martin, Richard C. Macmillan Reference, 2004. Vol. 1. p.394, 20 April 2008.
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