ANZUS

Last updated

ANZUS
Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty
ANZUS Logo (20921987801).jpg
Type Collective security agreement
Signed1 September 1951 (1951-09-01)
Location San Francisco, United States
Effective29 April 1952 (1952-04-29)
Parties
Citations [1952] ATS 2 (full text)

The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS or ANZUS Treaty) is a 1951 collective security agreement initially formed between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. [1] It requires the parties to maintain their "capacity to resist armed attack", consult with each other on security matters in the Pacific and declares that an armed attack on any of the parties "would be dangerous to [each signatories] peace and safety" and that each signatory "would act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes". [2] It also provides for a council of the signatories foreign ministers, in which the implementation of the treaty can be discussed.

Contents

The treaty was one of a series that the United States formed in the 1949–1955 era as part of its collective response to the threat of communism during the Cold War. [3] New Zealand was suspended from ANZUS in 1986 as it initiated a nuclear-free zone in its territorial waters. In late 2012, the United States lifted a 26-year-old ban on visits by New Zealand warships to US Department of Defense and US Coast Guard bases around the world. New Zealand maintains a nuclear-free zone as part of its foreign policy and is partially suspended from ANZUS, as the United States maintains an ambiguous policy whether or not the warships carry nuclear weapons and operates numerous nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and submarines; however New Zealand resumed key areas of the ANZUS treaty in 2007. [4] [5]

Treaty structure

The treaty was previously a full three-way defence pact, but was disrupted following a dispute between New Zealand and the United States in 1984 over visiting rights for ships and submarines capable of carrying nuclear arms [6] or nuclear-powered ships of the US Navy to New Zealand ports. The treaty became between Australia and New Zealand, and between Australia and the United States. While the treaty has lapsed between the United States and New Zealand, it remains separately in force between both of those states and Australia. [7] In 2000, the United States opened its ports to the Royal New Zealand Navy once again, and under the presidency of Bill Clinton in the US and the government of Helen Clark in New Zealand, the countries have since reestablished bilateral cooperation on defence and security. [8]

While ANZUS is commonly recognised to have split in 1984, the Australia–US alliance remains in full force. Heads of defence of one or both states often have joined the annual ministerial meetings, which are supplemented by consultations between the US Combatant Commander Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defence Force. There are also regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

Annual meetings to discuss ANZUS defence matters take place between the United States Secretaries of Defense and State and the Australian Ministers of Defence and Foreign Affairs are known by the acronym AUSMIN. The AUSMIN meeting for 2011 took place in San Francisco in September. The 2012 AUSMIN meeting was in Perth, Western Australia in November. [9] AUSMIN continues to meet annually, most recently in 2023. [10]

Unlike the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), ANZUS has no integrated defence structure or dedicated forces. Nevertheless, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardising equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate several joint-defence facilities in Australia, mainly ground stations for spy satellite, and signals intelligence espionage in Southeast and East Asia as part of the ECHELON network.

During the 2010s, New Zealand and the US resumed a close relationship, although it is unclear whether the revived partnership falls under the aegis of the 1951 trilateral treaty. The Wellington Declaration of 2010 defined a "strategic partnership" between New Zealand and the US, and New Zealand joined the biennial Rim of the Pacific military exercise off Hawaii in 2012, for the first time since 1984. The US prohibition on New Zealand ships making port at US bases was lifted after the 2012 exercise. [8]

History

Australian, New Zealand, and United States aircraft during a military exercise in 1982 P-3B RNZAF USN MirageIII RAAF 1982.jpg
Australian, New Zealand, and United States aircraft during a military exercise in 1982

Origins

Following the Fall of Singapore and the decline of British power in Asia, Australia began to search for other partners to ensure its security. Australia and New Zealand also felt threatened by the possibility of a resurgent Japan and the spread of communism to their North. [11] [12] Percy Spender, Australia's minister for external affairs, sought a broader Pacific security agreement in 1950 which would include Australia, the UK, other Commonwealth countries and the United States. The latter's participation was essential, with Spencer stating the agreement "would be meaningless without the United States". [13] At this point however, both the UK and the US were disinterested in such an agreement, with both seeking to limit their engagement with Asia. [14]

The beginning of the Korean War in mid-1950 changed American views. Australia committed to the Korean War before the United Kingdom and continued to further court the Americans. While Australia could not convince the US to sign a harsher peace treaty with Japan to restrain future military aggression, they did press for further assurances that they would retain a voice in Pacific security decisions and for an American security commitment in return for their approval of the treaty. The United States was initially reluctant, but the need to strengthen the West against communism grew with the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and the 1950-1953 Korean War. The treaty allayed antipodean fears that such a peace would allow Japan to threaten them again. [15] [16] [14]

The United States was initially reluctant, with the president instead an informal guarantee of protection. However, Australia pushed for a more formal agreement, with Spender noting that "Presidents come and presidents go." However, the treaty did not include an automatic commitment to armed assistance like in NATO, with Spender expecting that this could not be ratified by the US Senate who would wish to retain the congressional power to declare war. Instead, the text of the treaty mirrored the text of the Monroe Doctrine which stated that attacks on the American continent would be seen as "dangerous to its own peace and security". [14]

The resulting treaty was concluded at San Francisco on 1 September 1951, and entered into force on 29 April 1952. [17]

Korea, Malaysia, Borneo, Vietnam, and the War on Terror

U.S. General Westmoreland talks to the commander of the New Zealand artillery battery alongside Australian senior officers in Vietnam, in 1967. General Westmoreland visits 161st Field Battery, Royal New Zealand Artillery at Nui Dat.jpg
U.S. General Westmoreland talks to the commander of the New Zealand artillery battery alongside Australian senior officers in Vietnam, in 1967.

The treaty itself was not a source of debate for over 30 years, with New Zealand participating as part of the British Commonwealth Forces in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency, followed by the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, and directly as part of ANZUS in the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War was the first conflict New Zealand entered that did not involve the British or any other Commonwealth countries outside of Australia. As an ANZUS member New Zealand contributed military and non military assistance to the United States war effort in Vietnam from 1963 until 1975. New Zealand and Australian combat forces were withdrawn in 1972 and New Zealand non-military medical aid continued until 1975. [18]

In response to the War in Afghanistan, New Zealand sent transport aircraft, maritime patrol aircraft, and frigates to the Persian Gulf, as well as a very small number of soldiers, SAS soldiers, medical and assorted and peace-keeping forces, to Afghanistan in 2001. Despite Prime Minister Helen Clark being openly critical of American justifications for the 2003 Iraq war, New Zealand did send engineer troops to Iraq following the 2003 invasion. [19] These troops were however officially engaged in reconstruction under UN Security Council Resolution 1483 and were non-combatant.

Australian reservations about the MX missile

In 1983, the Reagan Administration approached Australia with proposals for testing the new generation of American intercontinental ballistic missiles, the MX missile. American test ranges in the Pacific were insufficient for testing the new long-range missiles and the United States military wished to use the Tasman Sea as a target area. Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser of the Liberal Party had agreed to provide monitoring sites near Sydney for this purpose. [20] However, in 1985, the newly elected Prime Minister Bob Hawke, of the Labor Party, withdrew Australia from the testing programme, sparking criticism from the Reagan Administration. Hawke had been pressured into doing so by the left-wing faction of the Labor Party, which opposed the proposed MX missile test in the Tasman Sea. The Labor left-wing faction also strongly sympathized with the New Zealand Fourth Labour Government's anti-nuclear policy and supported a South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone. [21] [22] [23]

To preserve its joint Australian-US military communications facilities, the Reagan Administration also had to assure the Hawke Government that those installations would not be used in the Strategic Defense Initiative project, which the Australian Labor Party strongly opposed. Despite these disagreements, the Hawke Labor Government still remained supportive of the ANZUS security treaty. It also did not support its New Zealand counterpart's ban on nuclear-armed and nuclear-powered ships. Following the ANZUS Split in February 1985, the Australian government also endorsed the Reagan Administration's plans to cancel trilateral military exercises and to postpone the ANZUS foreign ministers conference. However, it still continued to maintain bilateral military ties and continued to share intelligence information with New Zealand. [23] Unlike New Zealand, Australia continued to allow US warships to visit its ports and to participate in joint military exercises with the United States. [24] [25]

New Zealand bans nuclear material

In 1985, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed significantly. Due to a current of anti-nuclear sentiment within New Zealand, tension had long been present between ANZUS members as the United States is a declared nuclear power. France, a naval power and a declared nuclear power, had been conducting nuclear tests on South Pacific Islands. Following the victory of the New Zealand Labour Party in election in 1984, Prime Minister David Lange barred nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. Reasons given were the dangers of nuclear weapons, continued French nuclear testing in the South Pacific, and opposition to US President Ronald Reagan's policy of aggressively confronting the Soviet Union. [26]

Given that the United States Navy had a policy of deliberate ambiguity during the Cold War and refused to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons aboard its warships and support ships, [27] these laws essentially refused access to New Zealand ports for all United States Navy vessels. In February 1985, a port-visit request by the United States for the guided-missile destroyer USS Buchanan was refused by New Zealand, as the Buchanan was capable of launching RUR-5 ASROC nuclear depth bombs. As this occurred after the government unofficially invited the United States to send a ship, the refusal of access was interpreted by the United States as a deliberate slight.

According to opinion polls taken before the 1984 election, only 30 per cent of New Zealanders supported visits by US warships with a clear majority of 58 per cent opposed, and over 66 per cent of the population lived in locally declared nuclear-free zones. [28] An opinion poll commissioned by the 1986 Defence Committee of Enquiry confirmed that 92 per cent now opposed nuclear weapons in New Zealand and 69 per cent opposed warship visits; 92 per cent wanted New Zealand to promote nuclear disarmament through the UN, while 88 per cent supported the promotion of nuclear-free zones. [29]

United States suspends obligations to New Zealand

After consultations with Australia and after negotiations with New Zealand broke down, the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty obligations to New Zealand until United States Navy ships were re-admitted to New Zealand ports, citing that New Zealand was "a friend, but not an ally". [30] The crisis made front-page headlines for weeks in many American newspapers. [31] David Lange did not withdraw New Zealand from ANZUS, although his government's policy led to the US's decision to suspend its treaty obligations to New Zealand.

An opinion poll in New Zealand in 1991, [32] showed 54% of those sampled preferred to let the treaty lapse rather than accept visits again by nuclear-armed or nuclear-powered vessels. The policy did not become law until 8 June 1987 with the passing of the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, more than two years after the Buchanan was refused entry after the US refused to declare the presence or absence of nuclear weapons, and a year after the US suspended its treaty obligations to New Zealand. This law effectively made the entire country a nuclear-free zone. [33] Despite the ANZUS split, US Secretary of State George P. Shultz maintained that the ANZUS structure was still in place, should NZ decide in the future to reverse its anti-nuclear policy and return to a fully operational defence relationship with the US. President Reagan also maintained in NSDD 193 (National Security Decision Directive) that New Zealand still remained a "friend, but not an ally". [34]

On 10 July 1985, agents of the French Directorate-General for External Security bombed the Greenpeace protest vessel Rainbow Warrior in Auckland, causing one death. The lack of condemnation by Western leaders to this violation of a friendly state's sovereignty caused a great deal of change in New Zealand's foreign and defence policy, [35] and strengthened domestic opposition to the military application of nuclear technology in any form. New Zealand distanced itself from its traditional ally, the United States, and built relationships with small South Pacific countries, while retaining its good relations with Australia, and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom. [36]

The suspension of New Zealand in ANZUS has had significant effect on New Zealand–United States relations and on New Zealand domestic policy. The anti-nuclear policy has been a part of New Zealand political culture for years now. However, that has not stopped United States politicians from trying to change the policy. [ citation needed ]

Afghanistan

Australian Prime Minister John Howard and US President George W. Bush on 10 September 2001. Howard was in Washington during the 11 September attacks. Bush-Howard 2001 review.jpg
Australian Prime Minister John Howard and US President George W. Bush on 10 September 2001. Howard was in Washington during the 11 September attacks.

Australia and New Zealand both provided military units, including special forces and naval ships, in support of the US-led "Operation Enduring Freedom" for support for anti-Taliban forces in response to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks. Providing 1,550 troops, Australia remains the largest non-NATO contributor of military personnel in Afghanistan. New Zealand committed 191 troops. [37]

East Timor

Between 1999 and 2003, the armed forces of Australia and New Zealand deployed together in a large scale operation in East Timor, to prevent pro-Indonesian militia from overturning a vote for independence on the region. The United States provided only limited logistical support but the USS Mobile Bay provided air defence for the initial entry operation. The operation was taken over by the United Nations.

Taiwan

One topic that became prominent in the 2000s was the implications in the case of a hypothetical attack by the People's Republic of China against Taiwan, who would likely receive American support. While Australia has strong cultural and economic ties with the United States, it also has an increasingly important trade relationship with mainland China.

In August 2004, Foreign Minister Alexander Downer implied in Beijing that the treaty would likely not apply to that situation, but he was quickly corrected by Prime Minister John Howard. In March 2005, after an official of the People's Republic of China stated that it may be necessary for Australia to reassess the treaty and after China passed an Anti-Secession Law regarding Taiwan, Downer stated that in case of Chinese aggression on Taiwan, the treaty would come into force, but that the treaty would require only consultations with the United States and not necessarily commit Australia to war.[ citation needed ]

1985 to present

Annual bilateral meetings between the US Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second meeting, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Subsequent bilateral Australia–US Ministerial (AUSMIN) meetings have alternated between Australia and the United States.

The alliance engenders some political controversy in Australia. Particularly after Australian involvement in the 2003 Iraq war, some quarters of Australian society have called for a re-evaluation of the relationship between the two nations. Nonetheless, the alliance enjoyed broad support during the Cold War [38] and continues to enjoy broad support in Australia. [39] One commentator in Australia has argued that the treaty should be re-negotiated in the context of terrorism, the modern role of the United Nations and as a purely US–Australian alliance. [40]

Australia is also a contributor to the National Missile Defense system. [41] [42]

In May 2006, US Assistant Secretary of State for East Asia, Pacific Affairs and Northern Atlantinc Ocean Christopher Hill, described the New Zealand anti-nuclear issue as "a bit of a relic", and signalled that the US wanted a closer defence relationship with New Zealand. He also praised New Zealand's involvement in Afghanistan and reconstruction in Iraq. "Rather than trying to change each other's minds on the nuclear issue, which is a bit of a relic, I think we should focus on things we can make work" he told an Australian newspaper. [43]

While there have been signs of the nuclear dispute between the US and NZ thawing out, pressure from the United States increased in 2006 with US trade officials linking the repeal of the ban of American nuclear ships from New Zealand's ports to a potential free trade agreement between the two countries. [44]

On 4 February 2008, US Trade Representative Susan Schwab announced that the United States will join negotiations with four Asia–Pacific countries: Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore to be known as the "P-4". These countries already have a FTA called the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership and the United States will be looking to become involved in the "vitally important emerging Asia-Pacific region". A number of US-based organisations support the negotiations including, but not limited to: the United States Chamber of Commerce, National Association of Manufacturers, National Foreign Trade Council, Emergency Committee for American Trade and Coalition of Service Industries. [45] [46]

In 2010, the United States and New Zealand signed the Wellington Declaration in Wellington, New Zealand, during a three-day visit by US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. The signing of the declaration ended the ANZUS dispute of the past 25 years, and it was later revealed the US and New Zealand had resumed military co-operation in eight areas in 2007. [47]

On 16 November 2011, US President Obama and Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard met in Canberra, Australia to announce plans for a sustained new American presence on Australian soil. 2,500 American troops are to be deployed to Darwin, Australia.

New Zealand and the United States signed the Washington Declaration on 19 June 2012 "to promote and strengthen closer bilateral defense and security cooperation". [48] On 20 September 2012, while on a visit to New Zealand, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the United States was lifting the 26-year-old ban on visits by New Zealand warships to US Department of Defense and US Coast Guard bases around the world; [49] US Marines had trained in New Zealand and New Zealand's navy took part in the RIMPAC maritime exercises alongside the US earlier that year. [50]

The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) invited the United States Navy to send a vessel to participate in the RNZN's 75th Birthday Celebrations in Auckland over the weekend of 19–21 November 2016. The guided-missile destroyer USS Sampson became the first US warship to visit New Zealand in 33 years. New Zealand Prime Minister John Key granted approval for the ship's visit under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, which requires that the Prime Minister has to be satisfied that any visiting ship is not nuclear armed or powered. [51] Following the 7.8 magnitude Kaikōura earthquake on 14 November 2016 the Sampson and other naval ships from Australia, Canada, Japan and Singapore were diverted to proceed directly to Kaikōura to provide humanitarian assistance. [52]

In late 2021 Australia, the UK and the USA signed the AUKUS agreement, a trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. New Zealand did not participate and any nuclear submarines developed under the pact will be banned from New Zealand waters under their existing nuclear restrictions. [53]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of New Zealand</span>

The foreign relations of New Zealand are oriented chiefly toward developed democratic nations and emerging Pacific Island economies. Until the late 20th century, New Zealand aligned itself strongly with the United Kingdom and had few bilateral relationships with other countries. From the latter half of the 20th century, Australia has been New Zealand's most important cultural, economic and military partner. Today, the country participates in several multilateral political organisations, including Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Community, and the Pacific Islands Forum. New Zealand has been described as an emerging power; however, such a claim needs to be considered in the context of its medium-sized economy and limited military capability. The country's major political parties have generally agreed on the broad outlines of foreign policy, and the government has been active in promoting free trade, nuclear disarmament, and arms control.

In the context of global politics, a policy of deliberate ambiguity is the practice by a government or non-state actor of being deliberately ambiguous with regard to all or certain aspects of its operational or positional policies. This is typically a way to avoid direct conflict while maintaining a masked more assertive or threatening position on a subject.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southeast Asia Treaty Organization</span> Collective defense organization (1955–1977)

The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand. The organization's headquarters was also in Bangkok. A total of eight members joined the organization in its lifetime.

A nuclear-free zone is an area in which nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants are banned. The specific ramifications of these depend on the locale in question, but are generally distinct from nuclear-weapon-free zones, in that the latter only bans nuclear weapons but may permit nuclear power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Major non-NATO ally</span> Special designation of the United States

A major non-NATO ally (MNNA) is a designation given by the United States government to countries that have strategic working relationships with the U.S. Armed Forces while not being members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). While the status does not automatically constitute a mutual defense pact with the United States, it does confer a variety of military and financial advantages that are otherwise unobtainable by non-NATO countries. There are currently 20 major non-NATO allies across four continents: 11 in Asia, 4 in Africa, 3 in South America, and 2 in Oceania.

The diplomatic history of Australia encompasses the historical events surrounding Australian foreign relations. Following the global change in the dynamics of international state of affairs in the 20th century, this saw a transition within Australia's diplomatic situation to broaden outside of exclusively commonwealth and western European nations. Its core relationship was with Great Britain until 1941, and with the United States and New Zealand since then as represented by ANZUS. In the 21st century trade has soared with China. However relations have cycled back and forth from friendly to strained. For recent relations see also Foreign relations of Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australia–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

Australia and the United States are close allies, maintaining a robust relationship underpinned by shared democratic values, common interests, and cultural affinities. Economic, academic, and people-to-people ties are vibrant and strong. At the governmental level, relations between Australia and the United States are formalized by the ANZUS security agreement, the AUKUS security partnership and the Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement. They were formally allied together in both World War I & World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, and the War on Terror, although they had disagreements at the Paris Peace Conference. Australia is a major non-NATO ally of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987</span> 1987 law making New Zealand a nuclear-free zone

In 1987, the Fourth Labour Government passed the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act. The Act essentially declared New Zealand as a nuclear free zone. The purpose of the Act was ambitious and wide-ranging: “to establish in New Zealand a Nuclear Free Zone, to promote and encourage an active and effective contribution by New Zealand to the essential process of disarmament and international arms control”.

Frank Henry Corner was a New Zealand diplomat. Corner served as New Zealand's Ambassador to the United Nations and the United States, before becoming New Zealand's third Permanent Secretary of Foreign Affairs (1973–1980).

American foreign policy during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) focused heavily on the Cold War which shifted from détente to confrontation. The Reagan Administration pursued a policy of containment and rollback with regards to communist regimes. The Reagan Doctrine operationalized these goals as the United States offered financial, logistical, training, and military equipment to anti-communist opposition in Afghanistan, Angola, and Nicaragua. He expanded support to anti-communist movements in Central and Eastern Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australia–China relations</span> Bilateral relations

Consular relations between China and Australia were first established in 1909, and diplomatic relations were established in 1941. Australia continued to recognise the Republic of China (ROC) government after it lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to Taiwan in 1949, but switched recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC) on 21 December 1972. Chinese Australians have been a significant minority group in the country since the Qing dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (NZ)</span>

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (NZ) was co-founded in Christchurch, New Zealand in 1959 with the help of Elsie Locke and Mary Woodward. Mabel Hetherington, who belonged to an earlier generation of peace activists from England, was largely responsible for setting up the organization in Auckland when she moved to New Zealand after World War II. With Alison Duff and Pat Denby, Hetherington carried it in Auckland through the 1960s. It was largely from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (NZ) and the Peace Media that Greenpeace New Zealand evolved.

In 1984, Prime Minister David Lange banned nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. Under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, territorial sea, land and airspace of New Zealand became nuclear-free zones. This has since remained a part of New Zealand's foreign policy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Zealand–United States relations</span> Bilateral relations

According to the U.S. State Department, relations between New Zealand and the United States as of August 2011 are "the best they have been in decades." New Zealand is a major non-NATO ally of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AUSMIN</span>

AUSMIN, the Australia-United States Ministerial Consultation, is the main annual forum for consultations between Australia and the United States. It has been held most years since 1985, with the meetings alternating between locations in the Australia and the United States. It involves the Australian Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Defence as well as the US Secretaries of State and Defense, with senior officials from both portfolios.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australia–France relations</span> Bilateral relations

Diplomatic relations exist between Australia and France, as well as the historical contacts, shared values of democracy and human rights, substantial commercial links, and a keen interest in each other's culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear umbrella</span> Guarantee by a state with nuclear weapons to defend a non-nuclear allied state

The "nuclear umbrella" is a guarantee by a nuclear weapons state to defend a non-nuclear allied state. The context is usually the security alliances of the United States with Australia, Japan, South Korea, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Compact of Free Association. Those alliances were formed because of the Cold War and the Soviet Union. For some countries, it was an alternative to acquiring nuclear weapons themselves; other alternatives include regional nuclear-weapon-free zones or nuclear sharing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quadrilateral Security Dialogue</span> Strategic dialogue between Australia, India, Japan, and the United States

The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD), commonly known as the Quad, is a strategic security dialogue between Australia, India, Japan, and the United States that is maintained by talks between member countries. The dialogue was initiated in 2007 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, with the support of Australian Prime Minister John Howard, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney. The dialogue was paralleled by joint military exercises of an unprecedented scale, titled Exercise Malabar. The diplomatic and military arrangement was widely viewed as a response to increased Chinese economic and military power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AUKUS</span> Australia–UK–US security partnership

AUKUS, also styled as Aukus, is a trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States intended to "promote a free and open Indo-Pacific that is secure and stable." Initially announced on 15 September 2021, the partnership involves two lines of effort referred to as pillars. Pillar 1 focuses on Australia acquiring nuclear-powered attack submarines and the rotational basing of US and UK nuclear-powered attack submarines in Australia. Pillar 2 entails the collaborative development of advanced capabilities in six technological areas: undersea capabilities, quantum technologies, artificial intelligence and autonomy, advanced cyber, hypersonic and counter-hypersonic capabilities, and electronic warfare; and in two broader functional areas: innovation and information sharing.

References

  1. ↑ "ANZUS treaty comes into force". NZ History. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 5 October 2021.
  2. ↑ Australia; New Zealand; United States (1 September 1951). "Security Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America". Australian Government Publishing Service – via AustLII.
  3. ↑ Joseph Gabriel Starke, The ANZUS Treaty Alliance (Melbourne University Press, 1965)
  4. ↑ Alexander, David (21 September 2012). "U.S. lifts ban on New Zealand warships, New Zealand keeps nuclear-free stance". Chicago Tribune.
  5. ↑ Kristensen, Hans (23 September 2012). "In Warming US-NZ Relations, Outdated Nuclear Policy Remains Unnecessary Irritant". Federation of American Scientists.
  6. ↑ The test for ship access was decided as nuclear capability not actual proof of nuclear armament by a NZLP 1984 committee of President Margaret Wilson, Chair of the Defence and Foreign Affairs Committee and MP and former President Jim Anderton and MP Fran Wilde ,
  7. ↑ King M: 2003, The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin Books (NZ) Ltd, Auckland 1310, New Zealand. p426 and pp. 495–6
  8. 1 2 "New Zealand: U.S. Security Cooperation and the U.S. Rebalancing to Asia Strategy, government report, 8 March 2013, Congressional Research Service" (PDF). FAS.org. 8 March 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
  9. ↑ "AUSMIN 2011, media release, 14 September 2011, Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs". Foreignminister.gov.au. 14 September 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2011.
  10. ↑ "Fact Sheet: 2023 Australia – U.S. Ministerial Consultations (AUSMIN)". U.S. Department of Defense. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
  11. ↑ "Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
  12. ↑ Cohen, Michael (2022). "Different fears, same alliance: Multilateralism, assurance and the origins of the 1951 United States–New Zealand–Australia alliance". Journal of Peace Research. 60 (2): 322–336. doi:10.1177/00223433221077302. ISSN   0022-3433. S2CID   250472154.
  13. ↑ Parliamentary Debates: House of Representatives Offical Hansard. 9 March 1950. p. 632.
  14. 1 2 3 Gyngell, Allan (2017). Fear of Abandonment: Australia in the World since 1942. La Trobe University Press. pp. 51–6. ISBN   978-1-86395-918-6.
  15. ↑ David McLean, "Anzus Origins: A Reassessment," Australian Historical Studies 24#94 (1990), pp. 64-82.
  16. ↑ "ANZUS treaty comes into force | NZHistory, New Zealand history online". nzhistory.govt.nz. Retrieved 24 September 2017.
  17. ↑ William David McIntyre, Background to the Anzus Pact: Policy-Making, Strategy and Diplomacy, 1945-55 (1994)
  18. ↑ 'Surgical and medical support', URL: https://vietnamwar.govt.nz/nz-vietnam-war/surgical-and-medical-support (VietnamWar.govt.nz) Accessed 22 December 2022
  19. ↑ "NZ PM backs Blair's Iraq conduct". BBC News. 11 July 2003. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  20. ↑ Samantha Maiden (1 January 2012). "US planned to fire missile at Australia, secret Cabinet papers from the 1980s reveal". Daily Telegraph . Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  21. ↑ "US rocket plan became Hawke's first setback". Sydney Morning Herald . 1 January 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  22. ↑ "Hawke Government events: 1985". The Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library. 6 March 2013. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  23. 1 2 Carpenter, Ted (1986). "Pursuing a Strategic Divorce: The U.S. and the Anzus Alliance". Cato Institute Policy Analysis (67). Cato Institute: 4–5. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  24. ↑ "US Ships to Visit Sydney", The Southland Times , 22 February 1985, p.1
  25. ↑ "US Ships to Visit Australian Ports", The New Zealand Herald , 22 February 1985, p.1
  26. ↑ Amy L. Catalinac, "Why New Zealand took itself out of ANZUS: observing "opposition for autonomy" in asymmetric alliances." Foreign Policy Analysis 6.4 (2010): 317-338.
  27. ↑ "The Operations Coordinating Board (part of President Eisenhower's National Security Council) established the US policy in 1958 of neither confirming nor denying (NCND) the presence or absence of nuclear weapons at any general or specific location, including aboard any US military station, ship, vehicle, or aircraft."Morgan, J.G. Jr. (3 February 2006). "Release of Information on Nuclear Weapons and on Nuclear Capabilities of U.S. Forces (OPNAVINST 5721.1F N5GP)" (PDF). Washington, DC: Department of the Navy – Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  28. ↑ Disarmament and Security Centre: Publications – Papers Archived 14 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ↑ Disarmament and Security Centre: Publications – Papers Archived 13 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  30. ↑ Lange, David (1990). Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way: Books: David Lange, Michael Gifkins. Penguin Books. ISBN   0140145192.
  31. ↑ "The Australian National University". Archived from the original on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  32. ↑ "NZ Nationals move closer to US". Green Left. 12 June 1991. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  33. ↑ "Nuclear-free legislation – nuclear-free New Zealand". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 30 August 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  34. ↑ 'U.S. Policy on the New Zealand Port Access Issue', National Security Decision Directive 193, 21 October 1985, Federation of American Scientists Intelligence Program, accessed 22 October 2012, https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-193.htm
  35. ↑ Keith Sinclair, A History of New Zealand Penguin Books, New Zealand, 1991
  36. ↑ Nuclear Free: The New Zealand Way, The Right Honourable David Lange, Penguin Books, New Zealand,1990
  37. ↑ corporateName=Commonwealth Parliament; address=Parliament House, Canberra. "Australian Defence Force in Afghanistan". www.aph.gov.au. Retrieved 10 April 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ↑ ASSDA – Opinion Poll – M0004: Morgan Gallup Poll, May 1984 (Computer Reports) Archived 6 November 2004 at the Wayback Machine
  39. ↑ "Destined to stay with the USA – OpinionGerardHenderson". smh.com.au. 30 March 2004. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  40. ↑ "It's time to trade in, and trade up, the outdated ANZUS treaty – On Line Opinion – 15/4/2004". On Line Opinion. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  41. ↑ U.S. and Australia Sign Missile Defense Agreement – AUSMIN 2004 Archived 14 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  42. ↑ "Australia to Join US Missile Defence Program". Foreignminister.gov.au. 4 December 2003. Archived from the original on 18 December 2006. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  43. ↑ Geoff Elliott (22 March 2007). "Better relations on the menu as Kiwi PM dines with Bush". The Australian . Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2008.
  44. ↑ "New Zealand: US links free trade to repeal of NZ nuclear ships ban – November 2, 2002". Newsweekly.com.au. 2 November 2002. Archived from the original on 15 April 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-01.
  45. ↑ Office of the United States Trade Representative Archived 28 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ↑ Recent Events Archived 17 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  47. ↑ "What the WikiLeaks cables say about NZ". Television New Zealand . 20 December 2010. Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
  48. ↑ "Washington Declaration". United States-New Zealand Council. 19 June 2012. Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
  49. ↑ "US lifts ban on New Zealand naval ships" . The Telegraph . 21 September 2012. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2019.
  50. ↑ Alexander, David (20 September 2012). "U.S. lifts 26-year-old ban on New Zealand warship visits to U.S. bases". Chicago Tribune . Auckland . Retrieved 20 September 2012.
  51. ↑ "US warship USS Sampson heads to New Zealand". NZ Herald. 18 October 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2016– via New Zealand Herald.
  52. ↑ "US Warship may help rescue stranded Kaikoura tourists". Fairfax Media. 15 November 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2016– via Stuff.co.nz.
  53. ↑ McClure, Tess (16 September 2021). "Aukus submarines banned from New Zealand as pact exposes divide with western allies". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 27 March 2023. Aukus submarines banned from New Zealand as pact exposes divide with western allies: Experts say Aukus military deal underlines Australia's increasingly close alignment with the US on China – and New Zealand's relative distance.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.