The Western governments first considered boycotting the Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, discussing it at a December 20, 1979, NATO meeting.[3] Earlier in the mid-1970s, human rights groups had proposed Olympic boycotts to pressure the Soviet Union over human rights violations, but interest was limited.[4] The idea gained traction when Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov called for a boycott in early January 1980.[5] President Jimmy Carter joined the appeal, setting a deadline for the Soviet withdrawal or warning of potential consequences, including a U.S. led Olympic boycott.[4] Canada also announced it would join the boycott if Soviet forces did not leave Afghanistan by February 20, 1980.[6] Carter proposed moving the Olympics to Greece permanently to avoid politicization, but the IOC rejected the idea.[7]
Geopolitical Context
The boycott was rooted in Cold War tensions and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan [8]. The U.S. and other nations saw participation in the Moscow Olympics as potentially condoning Soviet military aggression [9]. The decision highlighted the conflict between international sport and global politics, reflecting the influence of foreign policy on athletic competition [10]
Decision to Boycott and Growing Coalition
Carter and Congress debated whether to send American athletes, balancing political pressure against the personal sacrifices of the athletes [11]. The United States led efforts to convince allies to join the boycott, with some nations agreeing and others resisting [12]. Prominent figures, including Muhammad Ali, traveled to several African nations to persuade them to support the boycott, demonstrating the broad cultural and political influence of the decision [13].
Soviet Reaction and Negotiation Attempts
Soviet leaders prepared to resist U.S. pressure using propaganda and diplomatic channels[14]. They expected limited pushback due to the successful execution of prior Cold War-era Games[15]. Attempts to negotiate with the U.S. and the IOC failed to prevent the boycott, showing the limits of diplomatic negotiation when political and ethical concerns clashed[5].
IOC Reaction
The International Olympic Committee opposed the boycott, arguing it unfairly penalized athletes . To mitigate this, the IOC allowed athletes from boycotting countries to compete under the Olympic flag, maintaining some participation while respecting political realities [16].
Impact on Athletes and on the Games
The boycott had a major impact on athletes, many of whom had trained their entire lives for the Olympics[17]. Some participated in alternative events such as the Liberty Bell Classic, which could not match the prestige of the actual Olympics [18]. The absence of top competitors changed event outcomes and the overall competition landscape [19].
Lord Killanin permitted NOC-qualified athletes to compete at the Games without their national flags or anthems (which allowed NOCs to send athletes in a non-national context), but this did not allow other individuals lacking NOC sanction to participate in the Games, as this was perceived by the IOC as a potential weakening of their authority.[20] Four competitors (including one athlete) from New Zealand competed independently and marched under their NOC flag because the government officially supported the boycott.[21] The athletes of 16 countries did not fly their national flags. Instead, Olympic flags were raised, and the Olympic Anthem replaced their national anthems at the medal ceremonies. There was one awards ceremony where three Olympic flags were raised, that being the men's individual pursuit in cycling.
At the opening ceremony's Parade of Nations, the 16 partially boycotting countries sent only a flag-bearer to march after the placard-bearer, without the rest of the delegation following the flag-bearer.[22]
Traditionally, the mayor of the previous host city (Montreal, Canada) hands over the Olympic flag, but Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau was prevented from attending due to the boycott. Sandra Henderson and Stéphane Préfontaine, the final torchbearers at the previous games, participated in his place.
Closing ceremony protocol rules dictated that the flag of the next host should be raised, but the United States "strongly objected" to the IOC's plans to enforce this rule.[23] During the 83rd IOC Session just before the Games, IOC Director Monique Berlioux discovered a "loophole" where the French and English versions of the rules differed; one version stated to use the flag of the "country of the organizing city", while the other stated to use the flag of the "organizing city". Berlioux as well as LAOOC head Peter Ueberroth agreed to use the Los Angeles city flag instead.[24] The Olympic hymn was played in place of the United States national anthem.[25]
The Antwerp flag was received by an IOC member from the United States instead of the mayor of Los Angeles, Tom Bradley; there was no handover to Los Angeles ceremony at the closing.
Some athletes competed despite their governments’ official stance, often under neutral flags. These examples show how personal ambition sometimes clashed with political pressure, resulting in a complex and uneven participation landscape [5].
Many athletes who had trained their entire lives were deeply affected by the boycott. Swimmer Jesse Vassallo reflected on the missed opportunity, recalling a conversation with President Jimmy Carter: “How would you have done in Moscow?” Vassallo answered, “I would have won two golds and a silver.” He remembered Carter’s pained reaction, highlighting the personal frustration of athletes sidelined for political reasons[26].
At least five national teams participated at the Games under the Olympic flag rather than their respective national or NOC flags, as doing the latter would have denoted that their participation was officially sanctioned by their respective nations:[27]
While the political impact of the boycott was limited, it left a lasting impression on athletes and international sport [28]. Many athletes expressed frustration and disappointment, and the decision is often debated as a controversial political move[29].
In April 1981, a Federal District court in Manhattan approved the settlement of two suits involving more than 9,000 Americans who were seeking refunds of payments they had made for trips to the Olympics that were canceled in wake of the boycott.
When the boycott was first announced, tour deposits of over 10 million dollars were refunded by the Russian Travel Bureau, the only agency authorized to book American tours during the Olympics. Although the Soviet Union kept about $7.2 million collected by the Bureau, they had agreed to set aside $1.8 million as credits to be paid back over five years.
Under the April 1981 settlement the remunerations were increased: Americans who had canceled their trips before 1 March 1980 were reimbursed a total 85 percent of their costs, while those who had canceled after that date were reimbursed 63 percent.
Non-participating countries
Sixty-eight National Olympic Committees that were invited to the 1980 Summer Olympics, plus Qatar, did not participate for various reasons, including support for the boycott and economic reasons (Qatar's National Olympic Committee was recognized in February of that year, but not in time to assemble a delegation to be sent).
Boxer Muhammad Ali traveled to Tanzania, Nigeria, and Senegal to unsuccessfully convince their leaders to join the boycott. He did, however, successfully convince the Kenyan government to do so.
Many countries ultimately joined the U.S. in a full boycott of the Games. These included Japan and West Germany, where Chancellor Schmidt was able to convince the West German Olympic Committee to support the boycott. China, the Philippines, Chile, Argentina and Norway also boycotted the Games entirely. Some of these countries competed at the alternative "Liberty Bell Classic" or Olympic Boycott Games held in Philadelphia that same year. Israel also joined the boycott to protest Soviet military aggression, but also because of Soviet antisemitic and anti-Israel policies.
The governments of the United Kingdom, France, and Australia supported the boycott, but left any final decision over the participation of their country's athletes to their respective NOCs and the decision of their individual athletes. The United Kingdom and France sent a much smaller athletic delegation than would have originally been possible. The British associations that governed equestrian sports, hockey, shooting and yachting completely boycotted the 1980 Summer Olympics.
Spain, Italy, Sweden, Iceland and Finland, although the latter under a heavy Russian influence at the time, were other principal nations representing western Europe at the Games. Of these, Spain and Italy participated under a neutral flag with the Olympic anthem playing in any ceremony. Italian athletes serving in its military corps could not attend the Games, however, because of the national government's official support of the boycott. Many events were affected by the loss of participants, and some US-born athletes who were citizens of other countries, such as Italy and Australia, did compete in Moscow.
A firm enemy of the United States under Ayatollah Khomeini's new theocracy, Iran also boycotted the Moscow Games after Khomeini joined the condemnation by the United Nations and the Islamic Conference of the invasion of Afghanistan. Independently of the United States, the Islamic Conference urged a boycott of Moscow after the invasion; the Ayatollah meanwhile accused Moscow of arming the Baluchis against his regime.
Over 60 countries joined the boycott to varying degrees [30]. Some fully withdrew, while others allowed athletes to compete under neutral flags [31]. Each country’s decision reflected a mix of political pressure, national interest, and individual athlete choice[30] . Taiwan refused to participate as a result of the 1979 Nagoya Resolution, in which the People's Republic of China agreed to participate in IOC activities if Taiwan was referred to as "Chinese Taipei NOC".[32] However, the Sino-Soviet split during that time led China to refuse sending a delegation to the 1980 Summer Olympics as well:
During the 1980 Moscow Olympics, several nations and athletes participated under modified conditions due to the U.S.-led boycott. While some governments officially withdrew their athletes from the Games, individual competitors often chose to participate under neutral flags or alternative arrangements, balancing personal ambition with political pressure[36]. Prominent figures, including Muhammad Ali, even traveled to various countries to influence decisions on participation, demonstrating the wide-reaching political and cultural impact of the boycott[37].
Nations that did not participate in the Opening Ceremony
Seven countries participated in the Games under the Olympic flag without taking part in the Opening Ceremony:[27]
National teams represented at the Opening Ceremony by Chef de Mission
Two nations sent one representative each (Chef de Mission) who entered the Olympic stadium during the Opening Ceremony under the Olympic flag; for each country this was a token gesture, as their governments allowed individual national sports federations and in some cases individual athletes to take part in the Games if they chose to do so. Ireland also competed under the Olympic flag, rather than its own:
Events were staged separately in several sports, including the Liberty Bell Classic for track and field[42] and the USGF International Invitational for gymnastics.[43] The U.S.–Cuban 12-bout card at the Charlotte Coliseum (on Independence Boulevard, now Bojangles' Coliseum) on February 10, 1980, became the only meeting between Cuban and American boxers and was an important event in boxing; called "one of the prime matches of the year," by U.S. boxing coach Tom Johnson.[44]
↑Eaton, Joseph. “Reconsidering the 1980 Moscow Olympic Boycott: American Sports Diplomacy in East Asian Perspective.” Diplomatic History 40, no. 5 (November 2016): 845–864. https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhw026.
↑Giordano, Bob. “Olympic Dreams Stir Bad Memories of Moscow Boycott in 1980.” New York Post, July 20, 2024.
↑History House Blog, “The Cold War, the Olympics, & the Forgotten Congressional Gold Medal,” 2024
12The 1980 U.S. Olympic Boycott: A History Perspectives Book (e-book)
123Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, the Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War (e-book)
↑"Showing the Flag in Moscow". International Society of Olympic Historians – ISOH. Archived from the original on April 26, 2021. Retrieved April 6, 2021.
↑(https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1151077/carterr-1980-olympic-boycott-mistake; The 1980 U.S. Olympic Boycott: A History Perspectives Book).
12Eaton, Joseph. “Reconsidering the 1980 Moscow Olympic Boycott: American Sports Diplomacy in East Asian Perspective.” Diplomatic History 40, no. 5 (November 2016): 845–864. https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhw026.
↑Büchel, Donat (December 31, 2011). "Kalter Krieg". Historisches Lexikon (in German). Archived from the original on August 29, 2022. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
Eaton, Joseph. "Reconsidering the 1980 Moscow Olympic boycott: American sports diplomacy in East Asian perspective." Diplomatic History 40.5 (2016): 845–864.
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