Finlandization

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Urho Kekkonen and Leonid Brezhnev in 1960 during Kekkonen's state visit to the Soviet Union. Suomi noyryytetaan.jpg
Urho Kekkonen and Leonid Brezhnev in 1960 during Kekkonen's state visit to the Soviet Union.

Finlandization (Finnish : suomettuminen) is the process by which one powerful country makes a smaller neighboring country refrain from opposing the former's foreign policy rules, while allowing it to keep its nominal independence and its own political system. [1] The term means "to become like Finland", referring to the influence of the Soviet Union on Finland's policies during the Cold War. [2]

Contents

The term is often considered pejorative. It originated in the West German political debate of the late 1960s and 1970s. As the term was used in West Germany and other NATO countries, it referred to the decision of a country not to challenge a more powerful neighbour in foreign politics, while maintaining national sovereignty. It is commonly used in reference to Finland's policies in relation to the Soviet Union during the Cold War, but it can refer more generally to similar international relations, such as Denmark's attitude toward Germany between 1871 and 1940, or the policies of the Swiss government towards Nazi Germany until the end of World War II.

Origin and international usage

Finland's President Urho Kekkonen, translator Kustaa Loikkanen and General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev talking, at Kekkonen's 60th birthday Kekkonen-Loikkanen-Khruschev-1960.jpg
Finland's President Urho Kekkonen, translator Kustaa Loikkanen and General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev talking, at Kekkonen's 60th birthday

In Germany, the term was used mainly by proponents of closer adaptation to US policies, chiefly Franz Josef Strauss, but was initially coined in scholarly debate, and made known by the German political scientists Richard Löwenthal, Walter Hallstein and Kurt Birrenbach, reflecting feared effects of withdrawal of US troops from Germany. [3] It came to be used in the debate of the NATO countries in response to Willy Brandt's attempts to normalise relations with East Germany, and the following widespread scepticism in Germany against NATO's Dual-Track Decision. [3] Later, after the fall of the Soviet Union, the term has been used in Finland for the post-1968 radicalisation in the latter half of the Urho Kekkonen era. [4] [2]

In the 1990s, Finlandization was also discussed as a potential strategy that the Soviet Union under Gorbachev may have attempted to revise its relationship with the Warsaw Pact states from 1989 to 1991, as a way to transition from informal empire to a looser sphere of influence model, which was precluded by the fall of the USSR. [5]

As early as 2010 Shinzo Abe feared the Finlandization of Japan and South Korea to China, because of its growing influence and power. [6] [7]

The term has also been used in discussing other countries, for example as a potential outcome of the Russo-Ukrainian War. [8]

Finnish perception

In April 1970, a Finnish stamp was issued in honour of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Lenin and the Lenin Symposium held that year in Tampere. 1970 - Lenin.jpg
In April 1970, a Finnish stamp was issued in honour of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Lenin and the Lenin Symposium held that year in Tampere.

Finns have, and had, a wide variety of reactions to the term "Finlandization". [9] Some have perceived the term as blunt criticism,[ citation needed ] stemming from an inability to understand the practicalities of how a small nation needs to deal with an adjacent superpower without losing its sovereignty. These practicalities existed primarily because of the lingering effect of Russian rule in the time before the Finns first gained sovereignty; and because of the precarious power balance eastwards, springing from a geographically extended yet sparsely populated state with a traditionally imperialist superpower right across the border.

The reason Finland engaged in Finlandization was primarily Realpolitik: to survive. On the other hand, the threat of the Soviet Union was used also in Finland's domestic politics in a way that possibly deepened Finlandization (playing the so-called idänkortti, 'east card'). Finland made such a deal with Joseph Stalin's government in the late 1940s, and it was largely respected by both parties—and to the gain of both parties—until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. While the Finnish political and intellectual elite mostly understood the term to refer more to the foreign policy problems of other countries, and meant mostly for domestic consumption in the speaker's own country, many ordinary Finns considered the term highly offensive.[ citation needed ] The Finnish political cartoonist Kari Suomalainen once explained Finlandization as "the art of bowing to the East without mooning the West". [2]

Historical background

Finland's foreign politics before this deal had been varied: independence from Imperial Russia with support of Imperial Germany in 1917; participation in the Russian Civil War (without official declaration of war) alongside the Triple Entente 1918–1920; a non-ratified alliance with Poland in 1922; association with the neutralist and democratic Scandinavian countries in the 1930s ended by the 1939 Winter War against the Soviet Union, in which the Finns thwarted the Soviet attempt to conquer Finland, albeit with the cession of 9% of Finnish territory; and finally in 1940, a rapprochement with Nazi Germany, the only power able and willing to help Finland against the expansionist Soviet Union, which led to Finland's re-entry into the Second World War in 1941.

Paasikivi doctrine

Urho Kekkonen and Juho Kusti Paasikivi Kultarannassa.jpg
Urho Kekkonen and Juho Kusti Paasikivi
Ahti Karjalainen was one of the influential figures in Finnish politics during the Cold War and especially for its good relations with the East Ahti-Karjalainen-1980 (cropped).jpg
Ahti Karjalainen was one of the influential figures in Finnish politics during the Cold War and especially for its good relations with the East

After the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, Finland succeeded in retaining democracy and parliamentarism, despite the heavy political pressure on Finland's foreign and internal affairs by the Soviet Union. Finland's foreign relations were guided by the doctrine formulated by Juho Kusti Paasikivi, emphasising the necessity to maintain a good and trusting relationship with the Soviet Union.

Finland signed an Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union in April 1948, under which Finland was obliged to resist armed attacks by "Germany or its allies" against Finland, or against the Soviet Union through Finland, and, if necessary, ask for Soviet military aid to do so. At the same time, the agreement recognised Finland's desire to remain outside great power conflicts, allowing the country to adopt a policy of neutrality during the Cold War.

As a consequence, Finland did not participate in the Marshall Plan and took neutral positions on Soviet overseas initiatives. By keeping very cool relations to NATO and western military powers in general, Finland could fend off Soviet pressure for affiliation to the Warsaw Pact.

Self-censorship and excessive Soviet adaptation

Only after the ascent of Mikhail Gorbachev to Soviet leadership in 1985 did mass media in Finland gradually begin to criticise the Soviet Union more. When the Soviet Union allowed non-communist governments to take power in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev suggested they could look to Finland as an example to follow. [10]

Censorship

Between 1944 and 1946, the Soviet part of the allied control commission demanded that Finnish public libraries should remove from circulation more than 1,700 books that were deemed anti-Soviet, and bookstores were given catalogs of banned books. [11] [12] The Finnish Board of Film Classification likewise banned movies that it considered to be anti-Soviet.[ citation needed ] Banned movies included One, Two, Three (1961), directed by Billy Wilder, The Manchurian Candidate (1962), directed by John Frankenheimer, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1970), by Finnish director Caspar Wrede, and Born American (1986), by Finnish director Renny Harlin.[ citation needed ]

The censorship never took the form of purging. Possession or use of anti-Soviet books was not banned, but the reprinting and distribution of such materials was prohibited. Especially in the realm of radio and television self-censorship, it was sometimes hard to tell whether the motivations were even political. For example, once a system of blacklisting recordings had been introduced, individual policy makers within the national broadcaster, Yleisradio, also utilized it to censor songs they deemed inappropriate for other reasons, such as some of those featuring sexual innuendo or references to alcohol.[ citation needed ]

End of Finlandization

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the end of the Cold War, the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 was replaced by a new bilateral treaty between Finland and the Russian Federation on a more equal footing, ending the Paasikivi-Kekkonen doctrine. Finland joined the European Union in 1995, adopting its Common Foreign and Security Policy. Since joining the Partnership for Peace program of NATO in 1994, there has been increasing cooperation with NATO, including interoperability and participation in NATO missions.

Despite these changes, Finland initially remained militarily non-aligned and attempted to retain good relations with Russia. However, the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine caused a dramatic increase of public and political support in Finland for full membership in NATO. The application for membership was formally submitted on 18 May, [13] and after all 30 NATO members ratified the application, Finland became the 31st member of NATO on 4 April 2023. [14] The notion of "end of Finlandization" has been applied both to the changing circumstances resulting from the end of the Cold War and to Finland's decision to join NATO. [15] [16]

Finlandization in other countries

Ukraine

Ukraine has been seen as adhering to Finlandization due to its proximity to Russia. Until 2014, Ukraine officially identified itself as a non-aligned "non-bloc" nation. Under the presidency of Viktor Yanukovych, Ukraine was neutral but pursued stronger links with Russia. Yanukovych signed into law a bill that prevented Ukraine from formally joining any military alliance, including NATO, while allowing cooperation. [17] Following the outbreak of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014, and the subsequent annexation of Crimea by Russia, Ukraine renounced its neutral status; Petro Poroshenko, then-President of Ukraine, submitted a legislative amendment to join NATO in December 2014. [18] This was seen as the end of Finlandization in Ukraine. [19] Ukraine formally applied for NATO membership in September 2022. [20]

Russia escalated the Russo-Ukrainian War by invading Ukraine in February 2022. As a result, it has been suggested that Ukraine re-adopt Finlandization to end the war. [21] [22] [23] German Chancellor Olaf Scholz announced he opposes Ukrainian membership in NATO, calling on Ukraine to return to neutrality. [24] Donald Trump's victory in the 2024 United States presidential election has raised concerns that a Trump administration may force Ukraine to accept a neutral, non-aligned Finlandization policy, due to Trump's intent to end the conflict as quickly as possible. [25]

International responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine have also reflected Finlandization from some countries, particularly in Asia. India did not formally condemn the invasion, owing in part to its history of positive relations with Russia. It was also noted that Bangladesh, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan and Vietnam did not have strong responses to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, "reflecting pressures from Russia and China." [26]

Mongolia

Mongolia has been perceived as following a policy of Finlandization, due to its geographic location being surrounded by Russia and China. Since Mongolia is considered to act as a buffer state between Russia and China, as well as being dependent on the latter, Mongolian foreign policy tends to be neutral and avoids hostility towards China or Russia. [27]

Taiwan

Some scholars have argued that Taiwan has developed a policy of Finlandization with China. [28] Taipei City Councillor Hsu Chiao-hsin suggested that Taiwan could learn from Finland's policy of Finlandization in the Cold War era. [29]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of Finland</span>

The foreign relations of Finland are the responsibility of the president of Finland, who leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government. Implicitly the government is responsible for internal policy and decision making in the European Union. Within the government, preparative discussions are conducted in the government committee of foreign and security policy, which includes the Prime Minister and at least the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Defence, and at most four other ministers as necessary. The committee meets with the President as necessary. Laws concerning foreign relations are discussed in the parliamentary committee of foreign relations. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Warsaw Pact</span> Eastern European military alliance (1955–1991)

The Warsaw Pact (WP), formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA), was a collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Central and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant military alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization (WTO). The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the economic organization for the Eastern Bloc states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soviet empire</span> Term for Soviet foreign policy before 1989

The term "Soviet empire" collectively refers to the world's territories that the Soviet Union dominated politically, economically, and militarily. This phenomenon, particularly in the context of the Cold War, is also called Soviet imperialism by Sovietologists to describe the extent of the Soviet Union's hegemony over the Second World.

A neutral country is a state that is neutral towards belligerents in a specific war or holds itself as permanently neutral in all future conflicts. As a type of non-combatant status, nationals of neutral countries enjoy protection under the law of war from belligerent actions to a greater extent than other non-combatants such as enemy civilians and prisoners of war. Different countries interpret their neutrality differently: some, such as Costa Rica have demilitarized, while Switzerland holds to "armed neutrality", to deter aggression with a sizeable military, while barring itself from foreign deployment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine</span> Type of foreign policy

The Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine was a foreign policy doctrine established by Finnish President Juho Kusti Paasikivi and continued by his successor Urho Kekkonen, aimed at Finland's survival as an independent sovereign, democratic country in the immediate proximity of the Soviet Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scandinavian defence union</span> Failed post-WWII Nordic military alliance plan

The Scandinavian defence union was a historical idea to establish a military alliance between Sweden, Norway, Finland and Denmark after the end of World War II, but the idea did not come about when Denmark, Iceland and Norway joined NATO in 1949 at the request of the United States, while Finland and Sweden did not.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948</span> 1948 treaty between Finland and the Soviet Union

The Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance of 1948, also known as the YYA Treaty from the Finnish Ystävyys-, yhteistyö- ja avunantosopimus, was the basis for Finno–Soviet relations from 1948 to 1992. It was the main instrument in implementing the Finnish policy called Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atlanticism</span> Political ideology

Atlanticism, also known as Transatlanticism, is the ideology which advocates a close alliance between nations in Northern America and in Europe on political, economic, and defense issues. The term derives from the North Atlantic Ocean, which is bordered by North America and Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</span> 1990 treaty returning full sovereignty to Germany

The Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany , more commonly referred to as the Two Plus Four Agreement , is an international agreement that allowed the reunification of Germany in October 1990. It was negotiated in 1990 between the 'two', the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in addition to the Four Powers which had occupied Germany at the end of World War II in Europe: France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The treaty supplanted the 1945 Potsdam Agreement: in it, the Four Powers renounced all rights they had held with regard to Germany, allowing for its reunification as a fully sovereign state the following year. Additionally, the two German states agreed to reconfirm the existing border with Poland in the German–Polish Border Treaty, accepting that German territory post-reunification would consist only of what was presently administered by West and East Germany—renouncing explicitly any possible claims to the former eastern territories of Germany including East Prussia, most of Silesia, as well as the eastern parts of Brandenburg and Pomerania.

Sweden had a policy of neutrality in armed conflicts from the early 19th century, until 2009, when it entered into various mutual defence treaties with the European Union (EU), and other Nordic countries. The policy originated largely as a result of Sweden's involvement in the Napoleonic Wars, during which over a third of the country's territory was lost in the Finnish War (1808–1809), including the traumatic loss of Finland to Russia, which it remained part of until Finland gained independence in 1917. Resentment towards the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf, who had consistently pursued an anti-Napoleonic policy and thereby caused the war, precipitated a coup d'état known as the Coup of 1809. The new regime deposed the king and introduced the Instrument of Government (1809), later formulating a new foreign policy that became known as The Policy of 1812.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russophilia</span> Admiration and fondness of Russia

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Declaration of Neutrality</span> 1955 Austrian law declaring the countrys permanent neutrality

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cold War (1985–1991)</span> Phase of the Cold War during 1985-1991

The time period of around 1985–1991 marked the final period of the Cold War. It was characterized by systemic reform within the Soviet Union, the easing of geopolitical tensions between the Soviet-led bloc and the United States-led bloc, the collapse of the Soviet Union's influence in Eastern Europe, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canada–Soviet Union relations</span> Bilateral relations

Canada and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had diplomatic relations from 1923 to 1927 and from 1941 until the USSR's dissolution in 1991. The relationship was often tense, owing to the Cold War and Canada's membership in NATO.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enlargement of NATO</span> Collective geopolitical action by NATO states

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finland–Russia relations</span> Bilateral relations

Relations between Finland and Russia have been conducted over many centuries, from wars between Sweden and Russia in the early 18th century, to the planned and realized creation and annexation of the Grand Duchy of Finland during Napoleonic times in the early 19th century, to the dissolution of the personal union between Russia and Finland after the forced abdication of Russia's last czar in 1917, and subsequent birth of modern Finland. Finland had its own civil war with involvement by Soviet Russia, was later invaded by the USSR, and had its internal politics influenced by it. Relations since then have been both warm and cool, fluctuating with time.

<i>Foundations of Geopolitics</i> 1997 geopolitical book by Aleksandr Dugin

The Foundations of Geopolitics: The Geopolitical Future of Russia is a geopolitical book by Aleksandr Dugin. Its publication in 1997 was well received in Russia; it has had significant influence within the Russian military, police forces, and foreign policy elites, and has been used as a textbook in the Academy of the General Staff of the Russian military. Powerful Russian political figures subsequently took an interest in Dugin, a Russian political analyst who espouses an ultra-nationalist and neo-fascist ideology based on his idea of neo-Eurasianism, who has developed a close relationship with Russia's Academy of the General Staff.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finland–Yugoslavia relations</span> Bilateral relations

Finland–Yugoslavia relations were historical foreign relations between Finland and the now split-up Kingdom of Yugoslavia or Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Both countries gained their independence during or in the immediate aftermath of World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary (Yugoslavia) or the Russian Empire (Finland). The two parties established formal bilateral relations in 1928. The two countries developed their relations after the end of World War II and the 1948 Tito–Stalin split. At the time neither one of them was a part of either the Eastern or the Western Bloc in the Cold War–divided Europe. Both countries perceived development of relations among non-bloc neutral European states as a way to avoid isolation and preserve a certain level of independence without alienating major powers. Yugoslavia, however, perceived that in a deeply divided Europe there was shrinking maneuvering space for neutral countries and followed the development of what will be called the process of Finlandization with great concern. It therefore turned its focus on new allies among former colonies and mandate territories outside of Europe, where it developed its policy of equidistant active neutrality via its activities in the newly founded Non-Aligned Movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neutral member states in the European Union</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Austria–NATO relations</span> Bilateral relations

Austria and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) have a close relationship. Austria with Ireland, Cyprus and Malta are the only members of the European Union that are not members of NATO. Austria has had formal relations with NATO since 1995, when it joined the Partnership for Peace programme.

References

  1. ↑ Kaplan, Robert D. (2015). Asia's Cauldron. USA: Random House Trade Paperbacks. p. 26. ISBN   978-0-8129-8480-4.
  2. 1 2 3 Standish, Reid (28 June 2018). "The Meaning of a U.S.-Russia Summit in Helsinki". The Atlantic Monthly Group.
  3. 1 2 Baurkot, Samuel J. Jr. (2014). Kurt Birrenbach and the Evolution of German Atlanticism. New York: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. doi:10.7916/D8QR54JV.
  4. ↑ Fields, Marek (2019). "Into a New Era, 1961–1970". Defending Democracy in Cold War Finland. pp. 350–388. doi:10.1163/9789004416420_009. ISBN   978-90-04-41642-0. S2CID   212811095.
  5. ↑ Lebow, Richard Ned; Risse-Kappen, Thomas (1995). International Relations Theory and the End of the Cold War. Columbia University Press. pp. 146–148, 155–157. ISBN   978-0-231-10195-0.
  6. ↑ Abe, Shinzo (15 October 2010). "Former Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe on U.S.-Japanese Relations" (PDF). No. The Capital Hilton Washington, D.C. Hudson Institute.
  7. ↑ Abe, Shinzo (15 October 2010). "U.S.-Japan Relations". National Cable Satellite Corporation. C-SPAN.
  8. ↑ Juntunen, Tapio (2017). "Helsinki Syndrome: The Parachronistic Renaissance of Finlandization in International Politics". New Perspectives. 25 (1): 55–83. doi: 10.1177/2336825X1702500103 .
  9. ↑ Jason Horowitz (February 9, 2022). "Finns Don't Wish 'Finlandization' on Ukraine (or Anyone)". The New York Times. Retrieved February 10, 2022.
  10. ↑ Keller, Bill (1989-10-26). "Gorbachev, in Finland, Disavows Any Right of Regional Intervention (Published 1989)". The New York Times . ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved 2021-03-16.
  11. ↑ Ekholm, Kai (2001). "Political Censorship in Finnish Libraries in 1944–1946". Libraries & Culture. 36 (1): 51–57. doi:10.1353/lac.2001.0008. S2CID   152952804.
  12. ↑ Mäkinen, Ilkka (2001). "The golden age of Finnish public libraries: institutional, structural and ideological background since the 1960s". p. 131
  13. ↑ "Valtioneuvosto ja presidentti viimeistelivät Nato-ratkaisun – ulkoministeri Haavisto allekirjoitti hakemuksen". Yle (in Finnish). 17 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  14. ↑ Finland and Nato. Finnish Government 3 April 2023. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
  15. ↑ Md Himel Rahman (February 12, 2023). "THE DE-FINLANDIZATION OF FINLAND". Foreign Affairs Insights & Review. Retrieved May 9, 2023.
  16. ↑ Bradley Reynolds (April 6, 2023). "Finland's Long Road West". The Wilson Center. Retrieved May 9, 2023.
  17. ↑ "Ukraine's parliament votes to abandon Nato ambitions". BBC Online . June 3, 2010. Archived from the original on August 10, 2024. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  18. ↑ "Ukraine Votes To Abandon Neutrality, Set Sights On NATO". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . December 23, 2014. Archived from the original on September 16, 2024. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  19. ↑ Kirby, Jen (March 30, 2022). "What, exactly, is a "neutral" Ukraine?". Vox . Archived from the original on April 26, 2024. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  20. ↑ "Ukraine applies for Nato membership after Russia annexes territory" . The Guardian . 30 September 2022. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  21. ↑ "What is "Finlandisation"?" . The Economist . February 11, 2022. Archived from the original on November 30, 2022. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  22. ↑ Gergun, Artem (June 27, 2018). "Ukraine Between Realism and Liberalism: Avoiding The Trap of "Finlandization"". Wilson Center. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  23. ↑ Eckel, Mike (February 10, 2022). "'Finlandization' For Ukraine? Macron's Reported Comment Hits A Nerve In Kyiv, Stirs Up Bad Memories In Helsinki". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  24. ↑ Mamedov, Eldar (November 8, 2024). "Western leader blurts out what was once taboo on Ukraine". MSN . Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  25. ↑ Irish, John; Kauranen, Anne (November 12, 2024). "Finland dismisses 'Finlandisation' model for Ukraine". Reuters . Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  26. ↑ Ito, Takatoshi (May 30, 2022). "Asian countries moving toward Finlandization". Taipei Times. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  27. ↑ Schaller, Peter (September 17, 2022). "Finlandisation of Mongolia - A Model for the Future?". Babaar.mn. Archived from the original on September 18, 2022. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  28. ↑ Chang, So-Heng (April 10, 2010). "Is Taiwan Moving Toward Finlandization?". Eurasia Review. Archived from the original on October 29, 2012. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
  29. ↑ "EDITORIAL: 'Finlandization' no way for Taiwan". Taipei Times . March 4, 2022. Archived from the original on March 23, 2022. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
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