The foreign relations of Finland are the responsibility of the president of Finland, who leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government. Implicitly the government is responsible for internal policy and decision making in the European Union. Within the government, preparative discussions are conducted in the government committee of foreign and security policy (ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittinen ministerivaliokunta), which includes the Prime Minister and at least the Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Minister of Defence, and at most four other ministers as necessary.[1] The committee meets with the President as necessary. Laws concerning foreign relations are discussed in the parliamentary committee of foreign relations (ulkoasiainvaliokunta, utrikesutskottet). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy.[2][3]
The country declared independence in 1917, and in 1919 it was established as a republic. Throughout its existence, Finland has been a democratic state with a market-based economy.[4]
For six to seven centuries Finland formed an integral part of the Kingdom of Sweden, with the process of its incorporation beginning in the 12th century. During the Finnish War, which was linked to the Napoleonic Wars, the Russian Empire conquered Finland from Sweden. It was subsequently organized as an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian Empire.[4]
The roots of Finland’s foreign policy can be traced back to 18th-century Sweden and the Caps Party. During the period of autonomy under Russia, long-standing traditions of eastern policy were established.[4]
Independent Finland began adopting a policy of neutrality during the 1930s, drawing inspiration from the other Nordic countries that pursued similar lines. This neutrality continued after the Second World War. During the Cold War Finland expanded its economic cooperation with the West, while maintaining bilateral trade with the Soviet Union.[4]
Following the end of the Cold War, Finland purchased Hornet fighter aircrafts from the United States, joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace programme in 1994, and became a full partner in 1996. The country became a member of the European Union in 1995 and adopted the euro in 1999. In 1995, it also joined the World Trade Organization.[4]
In the post‑Cold War era, Finland renounced neutrality but maintained a policy of military non-alignment from the 1990s through the 2010s. This stance came to an end in 2023 when Finland formally acceded to NATO.[5][6][7][8]
From the period of Swedish rule to the era of independent Finland, the most significant Western trade partners have been Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 2024, Finland’s largest export destinations were Sweden, Germany, and the United States.[4][9]
Over the course of its history, Finland has witnessed the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Russian revolutions of 1917, the birth of the Soviet Union, the devastation of the Second World War, and ultimately the disintegration of the USSR. During both stable and turbulent times, Finland has maintained extensive trading relations with its eastern neighbour. Russia has consistently been Finland’s largest trading partner, during the successive eras of the empire, the Soviet Union, and the Russian Federation. These relations have experienced both periods of great expansion and times of severe decline.[4]
In 2014, when Russia annexed Crimea from Ukraine, Finland adhered to the European Union’s sanctions policy. It has maintained this stance since Russia’s invasion of Ukraine began in 2022.[10]
During the decades of neutrality and military non‑alignment, Finland emphasized its role as a mediator between East and West. The most notable example of this diplomatic tradition was the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) held in Helsinki in 1975, which contributed to détente in the Cold War order.[4]
During the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Sweden granted the Finns the right to manage relations with Russia on a practical level. The center of eastern policy was located in Vyborg. A key challenge proved to be the synchronization of eastern policy with the Swedish monarchs residing in Stockholm. At times, the Finns demanded a firmer stance toward Russia, while Stockholm preferred to maintain a conciliatory approach. At other times, Stockholm sought to tighten its policy toward Russia, but the Finns opposed it. Harmony in eastern policy prevailed only when Stockholm and the Finns shared the same outlook.[11]
Finland’s early foundations of foreign policy date back to the 18th century. Sweden lost its great power status after the Great Northern War in 1721. In the 1730s, the so‑called Caps Party emerged in Sweden, advocating peaceful relations with Russia. Its leader was Count Arvid Horn, and the Caps Party enjoyed considerable support in Finland. In contrast, the Hats Party pursued a more belligerent policy toward Russia and favored an alliance with France. The Hats gained power and launched the Russo‑Swedish War (1741-1743), known in Finland as the War of the Hats. The war ended in Sweden’s defeat and Finland’s occupation. In the aftermath of the War of the Hats, certain circles within the Finnish nobility began to entertain the notion of an independent Finland, envisaged as a polity established under the aegis of Russian support. At the same time, discontent was mounting among the Finnish population towards the policies exercised by the Swedish Crown, whether in relation to the privileges of the aristocracy or the absolutist rule emanating from Stockholm. Sweden’s autocratic king Gustav III later waged war against Russia in 1788, sparking a mutiny among Finland’s officer corps. The plan for the conquest of Finland was conceived around the time of the Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleonic France and tsar Alexander I of Russia. King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden refused to join the Continental System directed against the United Kingdom. Alexander showed little enthusiasm for the subjugation of Finland, as he foresaw that the war would bring considerable economic costs. Russia conquered Finland from Sweden in 1809 as part of the Napoleonic Wars.[4]
The Grand Duchy of Finland - Russian Empire 1809-1917
In 1809, the Russian Empire turned Finland into a Grand Duchy. While Finland was not granted its own foreign policy, this period laid the early traditions of an eastern policy toward Russia. Finland’s stance was one of compliance and loyalty to the tsars. Finland adapted to the foreign policy pursued by the Russian Empire. This opened for the Finns a perspective on the dynamics of wider world politics. Key figures of Finland's early foreign policy included Count Gustaf Mauritz Armfelt, Count Johan Fredrik Aminoff, Count Robert Henrik Rehbinder, Count Carl Erik Mannerheim, and Count Alexander Armfelt.[4]
In the aftermath of the political transformations that followed the early nineteenth century, members of the Finnish nobility, together with soldiers and officers, adapted to the new circumstances with notable celerity. Following Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, a significant number of Finns joined the ranks of the Russian army. Finnish nobles, soldiers and officers played a tangible role during the final campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars, being present within the forces commanded by tsar Alexander I of Russia that occupied Paris in 1814.[4]
In 1887, Finland had a commercial representative at the Russian Embassy in London. The commercial representative operated under the authority of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but he was entitled to report directly to Finland on the British economy. The British Empire was Finland's largest exports market.[12]
Russia and France concluded the Franco-Russian alliance in 1892. The Entente Cordiale between France and Britain was formed in 1904. In 1907, Russia became a member of the Triple Entente. At that time Finland did not conduct its own foreign policy, but instead adhered to the policies of Russia. Finnish soldiers participated in the First World War in the ranks of the Russian army - including Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim.[4][13]
In March 1917, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia abdicated the throne, which led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and left the Grand Duchy of Finland without a grand duke. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in November, Finland declared independence in December 1917. Soviet Russia was the first to recognize Finland in 4 January 1918, followed shortly by Sweden, France, and Germany.[14]
In late January 1918, Finnish socialists launched a civil war with the support of Russian Bolsheviks. The anti-communist Whites, in turn, were supported by the German Empire. German assistance initially took the form of arms shipments and the deployment of Finnish Jägers trained in Germany. During the Finnish Civil War, Russia and Germany concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, under which most of the Russian troops withdrew from Finland, leaving the Finnish Reds without support. Already in February, Finland's ambassador to Berlin, Edvard Hjelt, had formally requested German military intervention. In April, the German Baltic Sea Division landed at Hanko and took Helsinki from the Red Guards.[15]
To secure German assistance, Finland and Germany had signed a peace treaty accompanied by a trade agreement that granted significant benefits for German industry. A secret supplementary protocol authorized German forces to establish bases in Finland and to operate through Finnish territory to the Arctic Ocean.[15] After the White victory, a plan to establish a Finnish monarchy was set in motion, and Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse, brother-in-law of German Emperor Wilhelm II, was chosen as king-elect. Finland's pro-German policy and the election of a German king led to France to cut diplomatic relations with Finland, and prompted the United States and Great Britain to withhold recognition. U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing considered Finland a German-occupied country.[16]
However, Germany's defeat in the World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II also put an end to Finland's monarchy project and forced a reorientation of its foreign policy. German forces withdrew from Finland following the Armistice of 11 November 1918. General Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, who had opposed the pro-German orientation, assumed the position of Regent of Finland. Mannerheim advocated the entente cordiale, supporting alignment with Franco–British relations.[4] A republican constitution was adopted in Finland in 1919, and the Allied powers agreed to recognize Finland following the Paris Peace Conference.[17]
The establishment of closer ties with the United Kingdom was facilitated by Britain's role as Finland’s principal export market during the era of the Grand Duchy. Relations with France were in turn eased by the fact that the Russian Empire had been allied with France during the First World War.[4]Transatlantic relations gained importance immediately in the early years of Finland’s independence. Herbert Hoover was a friend of Finland, and he organized food aid for the country, whose economy had suffered from the First World War, the collapse of the Russian Empire, and the Civil War. The United States also provided Finland with necessary loans that supported its economy.[4]
Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg was elected the first President of the Republic of Finland in 1919. His presidency was characterised by an emphasis on domestic political affairs as Finland sought to consolidate its institutions and identity as a sovereign state. During his term, the only official state visit to Finland was made by the Estonian President, Konstantin Päts. In foreign policy, Ståhlberg largely delegated authority to Foreign Minister Rudolf Holsti, who pursued the idea of an alliance with the United Kingdom. The proposal, however, failed to gain broad acceptance within Finland’s political establishment.[4]
Ståhlberg was succeeded by Lauri Kristian Relander, whose presidency marked a shift in focus toward foreign relations. Relander undertook Finland’s first official state visits abroad and hosted several foreign leaders in Finland. The most significant among these occasions was the visit of King Gustaf V of Sweden to Helsinki, which underscored the close historical and cultural ties between the two nations.[4]
Between the world wars
Relations with Soviet Russia from 1918 to 1939 were icy; voluntary expeditions to Russia called heimosodat ended only in 1922, four years after the conclusion of the Finnish Civil War. However, attempts to establish military alliances were unsuccessful.[18]
In Finnish politics, the right supported orientation towards the Weimar Republic, while the left favoured closer ties with the Soviet Union. The key responsibilities of Finnish foreign policy were held by moderates and liberals, who supported cultivating close relations with Britain, France, and the United States. Finland also maintained naturally close relations with Sweden.[4]
In the Baltic region, new independent states emerged: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Finland sought cooperation with these countries through the so‑called buffer state policy, intended to safeguard against the threat posed by the Soviet Union. In 1922, Finland signed a treaty with these states, but the Finnish Parliament did not ratify the agreement. Cooperation among the buffer states was complicated by disputes between Poland and Lithuania. The buffer state policy was further weakened by the emergence of mistrust between Poland and France concerning the defence against a potential German threat; France was not prepared to support Poland. Instead, Poland signed a non‑aggression pact with Germany.[4]
World War II
In 1935, Finland publicly declared its withdrawal from the buffer state policy and officially adopted a stance of neutrality, in line with the other Nordic countries.[4]
Prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, Finland’s international trade was predominantly directed towards Western Europe. Commercial relations with the Soviet Union did not recover during the interwar years, owing to the fundamental incompatibility between Finland’s system of capitalism and private ownership and the Soviet Union’s model of a planned economy and communism. By the 1930s, exports to the Soviet Union accounted for less than one percent of Finland’s total foreign trade.[4]
When the Winter War broke out, Finland was left alone to resist the Soviet attack. Foreign volunteers also participated in the Winter War, and Finland received supplies from various parts of the world. The Finnish Army succeeded in defending the country against the numerically superior Soviet Union. On the Soviet side, the decision to hasten the conclusion of the conflict was influenced by the willingness of Britain and France to dispatch volunteers in support of Finland. In 1940, Finland and the Soviet Union signed the Moscow Peace Treaty. As a result of the treaty, Finland was compelled to cede Karelia, Salla, the islands of the Gulf of Finland, the Rybachy Peninsula, and the Hanko Peninsula.[4]
By 1940, the situation in the Baltic region had altered dramatically. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had partitioned Poland. The Soviet Union annexed Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In the same year, Nazi Germany occupied Denmark and Norway. Finland and Sweden remained the only neutral states in the Baltic Sea region. The two countries considered forming a political union, but Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union obstructed these plans. The Soviet Union had not relinquished its strategic objective of bringing Finland under its control.[19]
The Soviet Union continued to exert political and economic pressure on Finland. In June 1940, Nazi Germany occupied Paris, and the next stage was the Battle of Britain. Finland’s only remaining option was partnership with Germany, as no other alternatives existed in the struggle against the Soviet Union. Neither the Finnish state leadership nor the population were enthusiastic about this partnership, yet no viable alternatives were available. Germany, for its part, was interested in cooperation with Finland due to the presence of nickel deposits in Lapland, a raw material of vital importance for the production of defence equipment.[19]
Later, during the Continuation War, Finland declared "co-belligerency" with Nazi Germany, and allowed Northern Finland to be used as a German attack base. For 872 days, the German army, aided indirectly by Finnish forces, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second-largest city.[20] The peace settlement in 1944 with the Soviet Union led to the Lapland War in 1945, where Finland fought Germans in northern Finland.
During the Cold War
After the Second World War, Finland returned to a policy of neutrality. Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim served as President of Finland from 1944 to 1946. He was succeeded by former Prime Minister Juho Kusti Paasikivi, who during the era of the Russian Empire had been a supporter of the policy of conciliation and had served as Finland’s ambassador to Stockholm in the 1930s. Paasikivi, whose background was in the Old Finnish Party, had already been involved in shaping Finland’s policy of neutrality in the interwar period.[4]
President Paasikivi showed willingness to participate in the 1947 Paris conference concerning the Marshall Plan, but the Soviet Union prevented Finland’s participation. Nonetheless, Finland succeeded in negotiating favourable loans from the United States, which were repaid with interest.[4]
Finland did not join the Soviet Union's economic sphere (Comecon) but remained a free-market economy and conducted bilateral trade with the Soviet Union.
In 1948, Finland instead signed the Finno–Soviet Treaty. Similar treaties were concluded by the Eastern Bloc states, yet Finland represented a special case, as it remained both democratic and capitalist. Finland received formal Soviet recognition of its neutrality in 1956.[4]
During the Cold War, Finland’s foreign policy evolved into what became known as the Paasikivi–Kekkonen line, emphasising neutrality and the cultivation of good relations with countries across the international spectrum. The aim was to remain outside the confrontations of the great powers. To reinforce and interpret this foreign policy principle, the Paasikivi Society was officially founded in 1958.[4]
Throughout the Cold War, Finland’s diplomacy rested on careful balancing in the sphere of international trade agreements. Finland sought to expand its economic cooperation with both West and East, while maintaining relations with neither side at the expense of the other. The Soviet Union regarded excessive Western integration in Finland’s economic relations as a potential risk of Finland slipping out of its sphere of influence. Conversely, Western states were intent on preventing dual‑use technologies from reaching the Eastern Bloc, while also seeking to ensure that Finland would not drift into becoming part of that bloc.[4]
President Urho Kekkonen is the longest-serving president in the history of Finland.
A major highlight of Finland’s Cold War history was the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), held in Helsinki in 1975, which brought together the world’s leaders. The event also served as a demonstration of the diplomatic skill of Urho Kekkonen, Finland’s long‑serving president. The purpose of the conference was to promote détente and foster closer relations between the opposing sides of the Cold War.[4]
The participating states signed a treaty that guaranteed the free movement of people and information. This provision became a catalyst for demands for human rights within the Eastern Bloc. The CSCE conference thus played a role in undermining the Iron Curtain. Hosting the CSCE was, moreover, an acknowledgement of Finland’s neutrality.[22]
From 1975 onwards, the Soviet Union became Finland’s largest export market, overtaking the United Kingdom. This shift was largely due to Britain’s departure from the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) to join the European Economic Community (EEC), which created customs barriers that hampered trade between Britain and Finland, as Finland was only an associate member of EFTA. Finland signed a free trade agreement with the EEC in 1973, but most tariffs were not removed until 1977, with the final tariffs eliminated in 1985.[4]
Finland and the Soviet Union maintained a closely regulated bilateral trade relationship characterized by five-year trade agreements that specified export quotas for Finnish manufactured goods, machinery, and transport equipment in exchange for Soviet crude oil and mineral fuels. Trade was largely balanced annually through barter arrangements. The Soviet Union was not only Finland's biggest trading partner but also offered favorable conditions, including premiums on Finnish exports compared to Western markets. This subsidized trade relationship helped support Finnish industry and economic stability during the oil crises of the 1970s and 1980s.[4][23]
The President of the United States Ronald Reagan conducted a three-day state visit to Finland in 1988, hosted by President Mauno Koivisto. This visit symbolised the diplomatic relations between the two nations during the late Cold War period.[24]
In 1990, the Helsinki Summit took place in Finland between U.S. President George H.W. Bush and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. The agenda of the summit prominently featured the issue of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, which had precipitated international tensions. The discussions foreshadowed the subsequent Gulf War, which resulted in the liberation of Kuwait from Iraqi control.[25]
The trade partnership persisted as the Soviet Union remained Finland’s largest export destination until the USSR’s collapse in 1991, after which the dynamics of Finnish foreign trade shifted dramatically. The collapse of this trade regime had significant economic repercussions for Finland, as a substantial share of its exports and industrial sectors depended on the Soviet market. The Soviet trade relationships were also politically significant and symbolized a form of peaceful coexistence during the Cold War era.[4][23]
Finland officially established its relations with NATO in 1992 when it participated as an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) foreign ministers’ meeting. This marked the beginning of Finland’s engagement with NATO cooperation mechanisms following the end of the Cold War, motivated primarily by the need to monitor security developments in neighboring Russia and the Baltic states. Negotiations to join NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) were initiated in 1993, and Finland formally joined the PfP program in 1994. Initially, Finland’s cooperation with NATO was restricted to non-combat areas such as rescue operations, peacekeeping training, and environmental protection.[26][27]
In November 1995, Finland’s Parliament was presented with a new peacekeeping law that facilitated broader participation in international peace operations. This legal framework enabled Finland’s full engagement in the Bosnia IFOR peacekeeping mission in 1996 as an full and active peace partner.[26][27]
Concurrently, efforts to align the Finnish Defence Forces' compatibility with NATO military standards were formalized through agreements signed in 1995. Further integration steps included the establishment of a special Finnish mission to NATO headquarters in Brussels in 1997, enhancing Finland’s involvement in NATO decision-making processes while maintaining its policy of military non-alignment.[26][27]
Finland undertook several significant foreign and defence policy decisions in the 1990s. The country acquired 68 American F-18 Hornet fighter aircrafts in 1992, entered NATO’s Partnership for Peace programme in 1994, and joined the European Union in 1995. In 1995, Finland reinforced Western economic integration by joining the second stage of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, followed by entry into the third stage in 1999, which introduced the euro currency.[4]
Accession to the European Union marked the abandonment of Finland’s long-standing neutrality policy. By joining, Finland accepted the Maastricht Treaty, which laid the foundation for the European Union’s Common Foreign and Security Policy.[4]
From 1995 onwards, Finland adopted a policy of military non-alignment, positioning itself as a state outside formal defence alliances. At the same time, the government reserved the so‑called NATO option, maintaining the possibility of applying for NATO membership in the future if national or international circumstances required.[4]
During the presidency of Martti Ahtisaari in the 1990s, successive coalition governments brought Finland closer to the institutional core of the European Union. At the time, Finland was widely regarded as a cooperative model state within the Union and did not oppose initiatives aimed at establishing a common European defence policy.
This orientation shifted in the following decade. Under President Tarja Halonen and Foreign Minister Erkki Tuomioja, Finland adopted a more cautious line, making it an official policy to resist other EU members’ proposals for common defence structures. Nonetheless, despite this general reluctance, Finland joined the European Union Battlegroups in 2006 and the NATO Response Force in 2008, marking limited yet significant steps in multilateral security cooperation.
Finland’s role in shaping its relationship with Russia in the late 20th and early 21st centuries is closely tied to its pioneering work in the establishment of the European Union’s Northern Dimension policy. Introduced in 1998 during Finland’s EU Presidency, the Northern Dimension was a strategic initiative aimed at fostering cooperation and sustainable development in the northern regions of Europe, which included the EU, Russia, Norway, and Iceland as equal partners. This policy addressed the unique challenges and opportunities of the EU’s new eastern and northern borders, specifically promoting stability, environmental protection, economic prosperity, and social well-being in cross-border areas around the Baltic Sea and the Arctic.[28]
The Northern Dimension was conceived to manage the interdependencies between the EU and Russia, focusing on sectors such as environmental issues, nuclear safety, and the socio-economic development of border regions, including Kaliningrad. Finland’s geographic and political position made it a key driver of this policy, leveraging its EU membership since 1995 to facilitate a cooperative framework with Russia rather than antagonism.[28]
During the 1990s, Finnish exports to Russia recovered gradually after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the severe trade disruptions that followed. The economic situation in Russia came to stabilize during the 2000s, resulting in increased bilateral trade. By 2008, Russia had regained its status as Finland’s largest export market, fuelled not only by industrial goods but also by the growing presence of Russian consumers who contributed to Finland’s economic vitality. President Tarja Halonen’s tenure was marked by the cultivation of close and constructive relations with Russian leadership, further consolidating Finland’s role as a bridge between the EU and Russia.[29][4]
Thus, the Northern Dimension policy and the strengthening of bilateral trade relations underpinned Finland’s strategic approach to Russia in this period, balancing economic cooperation with political pragmatism to maintain stability and regional integration in Northern Europe.[28]
This structured approach positioned Finland as both a mediator and a facilitator in EU-Russian relations through the early 21st century, reflecting its unique geopolitical circumstances and historical ties.[28][4]
Relations with Russia were generally cordial, with recurring issues including bureaucracy at the Vaalimaa border crossing, airspace violations, development aid Finland provides to Russia - particularly to address environmental problems impacting Finland - and Finland's energy dependency on Russian gas and electricity. The Vaalimaa border crossing, opened in 1958, was the busiest between Finland and Russia and among the busiest land crossings in the European Union.
In 2005, the number of foreign spies in Finland returned to Cold War levels. Espionage activity was concentrated in the Helsinki metropolitan area, where the nation’s political leadership, largest corporations, and principal research institutions are located. The capital also hosts foreign embassies, through which, according to experts, the majority of espionage is conducted. According to information published by Helsingin Sanomat, approximately 50 trained spies representing the intelligence services of various countries were then operating in Finland. Most of them were based within the area of Ring Road III, posing as diplomats, journalists, researchers, businesspeople, grant holders, or students. Of these, an estimated 30 focused on civilian intelligence, while 20 concentrated on gathering military-related information.[30]
Change in constitution
In 2000, a major reform was made to the Constitution of Finland, which repealed the previously valid four separate constitutional laws and created a unified, modernised Constitution. This reform particularly signified a significant shift in the leadership of foreign policy.[31]
According to the Constitution of 2000, foreign policy is led by the President of the Republic in cooperation with the Council of State (the government). This means that the President’s power in foreign affairs is no longer exclusive but emphasizes collaboration with the government. Additionally, due to EU membership, the leadership of foreign policy was divided: the Council of State was given decision-making authority in preparing EU affairs and national measures, while the President retained responsibility for traditional foreign policy outside the EU. In practice, this transferred much power from the President to the Prime Minister and the government, while also increasing the role of Parliament.[31][32]
With this change, the President’s power in domestic politics was significantly reduced, and the Prime Minister became the key decision-maker in forming the government and leading the EU aspect of foreign policy. Except in times of crisis, the Constitution of 2000 emphasized cooperation and the President’s role is focused on foreign and security policy, but with more limited supervision and authority than before.[31][32]
The Constitution of 2000 strengthened parliamentarism and transformed the President’s position into a dual leadership in foreign policy: the President and the Council of State lead foreign policy together, with the Council of State and Prime Minister having a strong role in EU matters. This pushed Finland toward a more modern, parliamentary system of leadership in foreign policy. The arrangement has been criticised for not providing a simple answer of who's in charge if there is a major dispute.[31][33][32]
The Ukrainian crisis that erupted in 2014 significantly influenced Finland’s foreign policy, marking a turning point in its approach to regional security and relations with Russia. President Sauli Niinistö adopted what became known as a “stability policy” aimed at mitigating tensions between the West and Russia, reflecting a desire to maintain dialogue and avoid escalations amidst growing geopolitical instability.[4]
President Niinistö with US President Donald Trump in 2017.
President Niinistö’s diplomatic approach stayed rooted in pragmatism and continuity, echoing the principles of President Juho Kusti Paasikivi, seeking stable and functional relations with Russia despite the escalating conflict. Notably, Finland hosted a 2018 summit in Helsinki between U.S. President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin, underlining its role as a neutral ground for dialogue. Putin also visited Finland as Niinistö’s guest in 2019, exemplifying this continuing diplomatic engagement.[4]
This paradigm shift in Finnish foreign policy signals a new era marked by increased military preparedness, intensified international cooperation, and a commitment to upholding European security architecture, while acknowledging the complex realities of Finland’s geopolitical position.[4]
Among the most significant repercussions was Finland’s historic decision in May 2022 to apply for NATO membership, ending decades of military non-alignment. Finland joined NATO in April 2023. This decision was driven by increased perceptions of threat from Russia, which undermined the credibility of bilateral security assurances. Concurrently, Finland intensified its defence cooperation with Ukraine by supplying defence materiel packages and signing cooperation agreements to deepen military collaboration. Finland has emerged as one of Ukraine’s largest supporters by GDP ratio.[34][35]
Finland’s response to the Ukraine crisis reflects a balancing act: strengthening national security through NATO while maintaining channels of communication with Russia, supporting Ukraine politically and militarily, and contributing to European efforts to manage the conflict’s broader implications on regional stability.[34][35]
President Alexander Stubb's value-based realism is Finland's foreign policy approach, which he has articulated. It fundamentally combines a value base - Western values such as democracy, the rule of law, and human rights - with a pragmatically grounded realism in foreign policy that also takes national interests and global realities into account. This means that Finland adheres firmly to its core values while remaining open to dialogue with countries that do not share the same values. According to Stubb, value-based realism allows flexibility in balancing values and realism depending on the situation, providing broad maneuvering room for foreign policy.[36][37][38]
Multilateral relations
Since 1917, Finland has joined numerous multilateral organizations. Key ones include:
Finland joined the League of Nations in 1920 mainly for security and international legitimacy reasons. The membership was intended to strengthen Finland's international position, especially against the Soviet Union, which remained a significant threat after Finland's 1917 independence and subsequent civil war. Joining the League also gave Finland a voice in international cooperation and provided a platform to resolve regional disputes, most notably the Åland Islands question, where the League in 1921 decided the islands would remain an autonomous and demilitarized part of Finland. This membership helped Finland secure its sovereignty as a young independent nation and gain recognition and support in the international community during the unstable interwar period. The League membership was a cornerstone of Finland's early foreign policy and part of its efforts to cooperate with Scandinavian and Baltic neighbors for regional security.[39]
The Bank for international Settlements
Finland joined the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in 1930 because the BIS was established as an international financial institution to facilitate international financial arrangements and cooperation between central banks.[40]
The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Finland joined the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1948 for several key reasons related primarily to post-war reconstruction, economic stability, and the need for foreign financing. Established by the Bretton Woods agreements, the IMF aimed to maintain international currency stability and promote global economic cooperation. For Finland, IMF membership provided access to foreign dollar credits crucial for the country's economic recovery and development during the difficult post-war years.[41][42][43]
The Finnish government had already decided in 1946 to apply for membership as part of a strategy to join the new Western economic system. Membership also strengthened Finland's integration into the Western financial system, despite political uncertainties due to Soviet influence. Joining the IMF committed Finland to international monetary rules, enhanced the convertibility of the Finnish markka internationally, and facilitated the growth of trade and economic cooperation. This membership was a significant step for Finland’s international economic relations and foreign policy in the post-war decades.[41][43]
The World Bank
Finland joined the World Bank in 1948 as part of the post-World War II international reconstruction and economic system. The World Bank was established to finance the rebuilding of Europe and Japan, initially focusing on infrastructure such as roads, airports, and power plants. Finland's membership was considered a crucial step in financing postwar reconstruction and strengthening economic integration with the West. The Finnish government decided as early as 1946 to apply for membership because World Bank loans offered opportunities for economic development and acquisition of foreign capital, especially for industry and infrastructure advancement. The membership was also politically significant, reinforcing Finland's integration into the Western monetary system and international trade. The first loans were granted in 1949 and helped alleviate Finland's chronic capital and foreign exchange shortages in the postwar years. This membership was strategically important in Finland’s path toward becoming part of the Western free-trade and economic system.[44]
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Finland joined GATT in 1950 with the goal of securing tangible economic benefits. The GATT agreement offered a general reduction in tariffs, which facilitated Finnish exports because the same tariff benefits applied to all members of the system, eliminating the need to negotiate separately with each country. Membership also made it possible to move away from old bilateral trade agreements whose tariffs were based on outdated currency standards. Although tariffs had to be lowered, protective tariffs could still be maintained in certain sectors, and trade with Eastern countries remained outside GATT’s scope. Finland wished to remain part of economic development as the Nordic countries were simultaneously planning a customs union. The forest and export industries pushed for membership because it brought tariff concessions and strengthened Finland's position in exports. The Finnish Parliament approved membership in 1950, and joining helped break down trade barriers based on bilateralism, allowing Finland to engage in freer trade and integration with Western countries.[45]
The United Nations (UN)
Finland joined the United Nations (UN) in 1955 because its membership became possible only after the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, which came after World War II. Finland was not one of the victors of the war, so it could not be a founding member of the UN. Due to political disputes among the Cold War superpowers - mainly the United States and the Soviet Union - the admission of new members was delayed. Finland was accepted in 1955 as part of a package deal when tensions between the superpowers had eased. Finland emphasized neutrality in its UN policy, which was crucial for its position within the Soviet sphere of influence, while maintaining a Western societal model. Joining the UN marked an important step for Finland in gaining international recognition and engaging more actively in global cooperation and diplomacy. The membership acceptance coincided with the return of the Porkkala naval base, which further enabled Finland to credibly pursue its neutral stance in the UN.[46][47]
Finland began its involvement in United Nations peacekeeping missions in 1956, shortly after joining the UN in December 1955. The first deployment was to the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) in the Suez Canal area, making Finland one of the first countries to respond positively to the UN Secretary-General’s call for peacekeeping troops during the Suez Crisis. This early engagement set a precedent for Finland’s significant and sustained role in international peacekeeping efforts.[48][49][50]
Since then, Finland has participated in over 50 different UN peacekeeping operations worldwide, sending more than 50,000 personnel in total. A particularly notable contribution has been to the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) in the Middle East, where Finnish peacekeepers have served continuously since 1967, establishing Finland as a consistent and valued troop contributor. Finland’s participation reflects its foreign policy principles of neutrality, multilateralism, and support for international law and peaceful conflict resolution.[48][49][50]
Finland’s peacekeeping commitment extends beyond troop deployments to include training contributions and specialized units, reaffirming its significant role in global peace efforts. The seriousness of this commitment is underscored by the fact that 39 Finnish peacekeepers have lost their lives in service since 1956. As of recent years, Finland continues to deploy over 200 personnel to various missions, including the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), affirming its ongoing and substantial involvement in UN peacekeeping operations.[48][49][50]
This longstanding engagement demonstrates Finland’s dedication to multilateral peace initiatives and its status as a respected and reliable partner in United Nations peacekeeping endeavors.[48]
As of March 2011 Finland maintains diplomatic relations with all UN member states.[51]
Nordic Council
Finland joined the Nordic Council in 1955 after a careful consideration shaped by both international and regional circumstances. Following the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, relations between Finland and the Soviet Union warmed, reducing tensions that had previously constrained Finnish foreign policy. This thaw allowed Finland to engage in broader regional cooperation without provoking Soviet disapproval. Committed to a policy of neutrality and maintaining peaceful bilateral relations, Finland utilized the opportunity to join the Nordic Council as a means of asserting its political and cultural identity as part of the Nordic community. This step also reinforced its neutral stance in the context of Cold War geopolitics.
The Nordic Council had been established in 1952 as a cooperative forum initially including Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Finland's accession in 1955 completed the Nordic cooperation framework, emphasizing cultural, social, economic, and political collaboration among the member states while respecting national sovereignty. Joining the Nordic Council in the same year that Finland became a member of the United Nations symbolized Finland’s commitment to peace, stability, and multilateral engagement within the Nordic region.
Thus, Finland’s membership in the Nordic Council in 1955 was a strategic move aligned with its foreign policy objectives of neutrality and regional cooperation during a period when its external relations became less restrictive due to changes in Soviet leadership. It signified Finland’s belonging to the Nordic group both politically and culturally, without compromising its independent foreign policy.
The International Finance Corporation
Finland joined the International Finance Corporation (IFC) in 1956 as one of the original founding member countries at the time of the organization’s establishment. The IFC was created as a member of the World Bank Group with the specific purpose of fostering economic development by encouraging the growth of productive private enterprises, particularly in less developed countries. It was designed to complement the World Bank’s focus on government-backed projects by investing directly in private sector ventures without government guarantees and without taking management control. Finland’s accession to the IFC reflected its alignment with the global initiative to promote private sector-led economic growth and development. This step corresponded with Finland’s broader national economic goals during the mid-20th century, a period marked by efforts to stimulate industrial expansion and embed Finland within emerging international financial cooperation frameworks. The IFC's Articles of Agreement came into force in 1956, marking the formal operational start of the institution, which initially had capital of $100 million and staff dedicated to promoting private investments worldwide.[52][53]
The International Development Association (IDA)
Finland joined the International Development Association (IDA) as part of its long-standing commitment to international development cooperation and sustainable development. This membership aligns with Finland’s broader development policy, which aims to reduce poverty and inequality while promoting economic growth, gender equality, climate action, and the rights of vulnerable populations globally. Finland’s engagement with the IDA reflects its foreign and security policy goals by fostering international cooperation through concessional financing targeted at the world’s poorest countries. By joining IDA, Finland strategically positions itself to support global development challenges, consistent with its principles of human rights, democratic governance, and sustainable resource use. The decision complements Finland’s historical transition from aid recipient to development donor and its active participation in international organizations that promote peace, security, and economic development.[54][55]
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
Finland joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) as an associate member in 1961 in order to secure freer access to Western European markets and to strengthen its national economy through expanded trade opportunities. At the time, Finland’s principal trading partners, such as the United Kingdom and Sweden, were among the founding members of EFTA, and Finland’s economy was heavily reliant on exports to Western Europe, particularly in sectors like woodworking and paper products. Finnish policymakers viewed associate membership as a strategic economic move to enable competitiveness within a growing regional free trade area alongside its Nordic neighbors.[56][57]
The path to membership was shaped by significant geopolitical considerations arising from Finland’s delicate position during the Cold War, with strong influence exerted by the Soviet Union over Finnish affairs. Due to this, Finland’s association with EFTA was carefully negotiated to emphasize the organization’s strictly economic and non-political character, enabling Finland to integrate economically with Western Europe without undermining its special relationship and political neutrality toward the Soviet Union. Nordic solidarity, especially persistent advocacy from Sweden, also played a key role in facilitating Finland’s entry. This pragmatic approach allowed Finland to benefit from greater economic cooperation with the West while managing its geopolitical constraints, thus marking an important step in Finland’s gradual Western economic integration during the early 1960.[57]
The Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Finland joined the Asian Development Bank (ADB) in 1966 as one of its founding members when the bank was established on December 19, 1966. The ADB was created as a regional multilateral development bank to foster economic growth and cooperation in the Asia and Pacific region. Its purpose was to mobilize development financing and support social and economic development in Asia, complementing broader international efforts such as those by the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (now UNESCAP).[58]
The bank was modeled closely on the World Bank and aimed to be "Asian in character," addressing the developmental challenges of some of the poorest regions in the world at the time. Although the majority of members were from Asia and the Pacific, the ADB admitted non-regional developed countries, including Finland, which participated in this institution to support development financing and economic cooperation in Asia.[58]
The creation of the ADB was driven by a cooperative effort led by Japan and endorsed by major powers like the United States. It was founded in the context of rising regional identity and development needs following decolonization and economic transformation in Asia. Finland's early membership reflected its broader foreign policy commitment to multilateralism and international development cooperation.[58]
The bank's headquarters was established in Manila, Philippines, after a vote among prospective members, and the first president was a Japanese economist, reflecting Japan's prominent role in the bank's creation. Finland has maintained its membership since inception, contributing to and supporting development projects and economic collaboration in the Asia-Pacific region.[58][59]
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Finland joined the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on 28 January 1969. The decision was primarily a logical and strategic step in a long-standing process of economic integration with Western countries. During this period, Finland had been gradually intensifying its economic and commercial ties with OECD member states, reflecting its ambition to modernize and transform from an agrarian economy into a diversified, export-oriented welfare state.[60][61]
Politically, Finland aimed to bolster its image as a modern, highly industrialized Western market economy. At the same time, membership in the OECD was part of Finland’s careful effort to gradually distance itself from the Soviet Union's influence while preserving its policy of neutrality amid Cold War tensions. The Soviet Union was initially skeptical about Finland’s membership due to the OECD’s association with Western countries linked to NATO. To address these concerns, Finnish President Urho Kekkonen provided political guarantees to the Soviet Union, ensuring a delicate geopolitical balance.[61]
Before full membership, Finland had observer status in the OECD starting in 1961 and was also an associate member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Joining the OECD enabled Finland to deepen its participation in global trade networks, reinforce its commitment to free trade and economic modernization, and align more closely with Western market economies.[60][61]
Finland's accession to the OECD marked a significant milestone in its post-war economic development and international cooperation. By joining the OECD, Finland gained access to a platform for economic policy exchange, benchmarking, and research-based advice, which helped guide its evolution into one of the leading knowledge-based economies, known today for innovation, education, and social welfare.[61]
The Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
Finland joined the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), initially known as the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), in 1973 to promote regional and national security through a broad and inclusive forum linking the European international system. This initiative was deeply rooted in Finland's geopolitical position as a non-aligned and neutral country during the Cold War, aiming to have its policy of neutrality recognized and upheld by both the Western and Eastern blocs. Finland sought to foster dialogue between East and West and support a security paradigm that combined political, military, human rights, and economic cooperation to stabilize the tense East-West relations.[62][63]
The process was closely connected to Finland hosting significant stages of the CSCE talks, including the initial multilateral consultations and the Foreign Ministers’ meeting in Helsinki in 1972-73. This involvement gave Finland both symbolic and practical influence in shaping the European security order. For Finland, the OSCE was instrumental in maintaining its neutrality and regional stability while contributing to the broader European objective of unification through cooperation and peaceful conflict resolution.[62][63]
Finnish participation also served to counter Western skepticism about its neutrality and the notion of "Finlandization," a term coined to suggest undue Soviet influence over Finnish policies. By placing Finland at the heart of a major East-West diplomatic effort, the OSCE’s consensus-driven and inclusive framework gained particular appeal for Finland as a smaller, peripheral state that pursued security through multilateral engagement rather than military alliances. Since joining, Finland has actively advocated for democracy, human rights, and the rule of law as integral components of comprehensive security within the OSCE framework.[62][63]
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)
Finland joined the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) in 1977 during a broader expansion of Bank membership to include 13 European countries between 1976 and 1977. This move was part of the IDB's strategy to strengthen economic and social development in Latin America and the Caribbean by incorporating nonregional members with valuable experience, expertise, and financial resources. Finland’s membership aligned with its foreign and development policy goals, supporting initiatives aimed at reducing poverty and inequality in the region. Participation in the IDB reflects Finland’s commitment to multilateral cooperation, with development cooperation serving as a key instrument of its foreign and security policy. Through this engagement, Finland has been able to contribute to multiple IDB initiatives and foster economic relations with Latin American and Caribbean countries, thereby enhancing bilateral and multilateral development efforts since 1977.[64][65][66]
The African Development Bank (AfDB)
Finland became a member of the African Development Bank (AfDB) in 1982, coinciding with the bank's opening of membership to non-African countries. This change was part of an amended agreement concluded at Lusaka on May 7, 1982, which allowed non-regional member countries to join the bank. The inclusion of non-African members was driven by the conviction that partnership between African and non-African countries would facilitate additional flows of international capital for economic development and social progress in Africa, benefiting all parties involved. Finland's membership reflects its commitment to supporting these development goals by contributing financial resources and expertise through the AfDB's investment projects and programs aimed at fostering economic and social development in African regional member countries. This partnership aligns with Finland's broader development cooperation objectives.[67][68]
The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
Finland joined the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) in 1988, the year MIGA officially commenced operations as part of the World Bank Group. MIGA was established to promote foreign direct investment (FDI) into developing countries by providing political risk insurance and investment guarantees that shield investors from non-commercial risks such as expropriation, war, and breach of contract. The agency’s creation responded to the global need for a multilateral mechanism that could enhance investor confidence and support economic development in emerging markets through stable and fair investment conditions. By becoming a member, Finland aligned itself with international efforts to foster productive investment flows, particularly in developing economies, facilitating risk mitigation for Finnish and other investors abroad while supporting broader developmental objectives.[69][70][71]
The Council of Europe
Finland joined the Council of Europe in 1989 as part of its broader strategy to affirm its commitment to European democratic values, human rights, and the rule of law. The accession was motivated by a desire to solidify Finland’s identity as a democratic state amid the Cold War’s geopolitical tensions and to participate actively in efforts to promote political stability and cooperation in Europe. Membership in the Council provided Finland with a platform to enhance dialogue and collaboration with other European countries, thereby strengthening its security and international relations as it sought closer ties with Western institutions during a period of significant political change in Europe.[72][73]
The decision to join the Council of Europe also reflected Finland’s aspiration to integrate more fully into the European community and to have influence in shaping European governance. The timing in 1989 coincided with the waning influence of the Soviet Union and a transforming geopolitical landscape, enabling Finland to take a more assertive role in European affairs. Thus, Finland’s accession was driven by its commitment to uphold democratic principles, enhance security through European cooperation, secure a voice in European decision-making, and prepare for deeper integration within European institutions amid shifting international dynamics.[72][73]
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
Finland joined the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) as a founding member in 1991, aligning with the bank's mission to support the transition of former centrally planned economies in Central and Eastern Europe towards market-oriented economies after the Cold War. The establishment of the EBRD was driven by the need to foster private sector development, encourage democratic pluralism, and implement market reforms, which corresponded with Finland’s foreign policy objectives of promoting regional stability and economic transformation in the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse.[74][75][76]
As a founding member, Finland contributed financially to the bank’s operations and has actively engaged in its projects, emphasizing private enterprise and sustainable, green solutions. Finnish companies and professionals have frequently participated in EBRD-financed projects, particularly in countries within the bank’s region of operation, establishing Finland’s role in supporting the economic modernization and integration of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The EBRD’s commitment to supporting multiparty democracy and market economies reflected Finland's post-Cold War foreign policy stance and enhanced its participation in European and international cooperation frameworks during a significant period of transition in Europe.[74][75][76]
Finland’s involvement also provided opportunities for Finnish companies to engage in high-standard international projects and consultancy services, especially in emerging markets requiring transition finance and expertise. The bank’s green initiatives have recently been an area where Finnish cleantech firms have made notable contributions, supported by the EBRD’s Green Cities Programme and similar projects.[74][76]
The World Trade Organization (WTO)
Finland joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) on January 1, 1995, as a founding member at the WTO’s establishment after the Uruguay Round negotiations, succeeding its long-standing membership in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since 1950. The accession granted Finland the ability to participate in a rules-based global trading system with binding agreements that regulate international trade, providing mechanisms for trade negotiations, dispute resolution, and the reduction of trade barriers and discrimination.[77][78][79][80]
This membership aligned with Finland’s commitment to free trade, crucial for a small country heavily reliant on international trade. Joining the WTO coincided with Finland’s accession to the European Union in 1995, which brought Finland under the EU’s trade policy framework within the WTO. As an EU member state, Finland’s participation in the WTO is coordinated through the European Commission, which speaks for all EU countries in WTO trade matters. WTO membership thus facilitated Finland’s integration into the global economy, underpinning its economic interests and enhancing its role in international trade through regulated multilateral cooperation.[77][80]
The European Union (EU)
Finland joined the European Union in 1995, marking a significant turning point in the country’s history. The decision was primarily driven by the desire to strengthen Finland’s economic and political security while deepening its integration with Western Europe. After the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Finland sought to diversify its trade and political relations, which had previously been closely tied to its eastern neighbor, Russia. This new phase allowed Finland to reposition itself as a Western-oriented country, thereby increasing its national prosperity and securing markets for its exports, which had been heavily reliant on the Soviet economy.[81][82]
During the early 1990s, Finland underwent a process of careful negotiation to meet the criteria for EU membership, which were solidified at the 1993 Copenhagen European Council. These criteria required new members to have stable institutions guaranteeing democracy based on the rule of law, respect for human rights including minority rights, and a functioning market economy capable of handling competitive conditions within the Union. Finland met these conditions and was thus well-prepared to join the union.[81]
Political security also played a crucial role, as Finland sought to align itself with the Western European democracies after decades of neutrality during the Cold War. The country’s approach to foreign policy shifted from neutrality toward active participation in a political union, while maintaining military non-alignment. The influence of neighboring Sweden, which applied for EU membership at the same time, was another important factor that encouraged Finland’s accession.[81]
Public support for EU membership was secured through a national referendum held in 1994, in which approximately 56.9% of Finnish voters favored joining the union. This referendum reflected a societal consensus that integration with the EU was essential for Finland’s future economic development and political stability. Consequently, Finland officially became a member of the European Union on January 1, 1995, embarking on a path of deeper cooperation and engagement within Europe.[81][82]
The Schengen Area
Finland joined the Nordic Passport Union in 1954, which was a pioneering agreement among the Nordic countries to facilitate free movement of people. The Union initially abolished passport requirements for travel between Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland, later extending freedom to reside and work without permits. Iceland joined the Union in 1965. Established through successive agreements in the 1950s, the Nordic Passport Union was a forerunner to the European Schengen system and embodied close Nordic cooperation. It enabled citizens of member countries to travel across borders without passport controls, reinforcing shared cultural ties and economic collaboration long before broader European integration efforts.[83][84]
This tradition of Nordic open borders laid the groundwork for Finland's later accession to the Schengen Area, which it joined in 2001. The move was seen as a natural progression from the Nordic Passport Union towards broader European integration, eliminating internal border controls at a continental scale while enhancing security through common policies. The Schengen membership strengthened Finland's ties within the EU and continued its historical Nordic cooperation by facilitating easier movement and trade within Europe.[84]
INTELSAT
Finland joined INTELSAT in 1999 as part of a long-standing national strategy to integrate into international telecommunications and space-related organizations. This membership aligned with Finland’s interests in advancing scientific research, technological development, and participation in global communications infrastructure. INTELSAT membership enabled Finland to actively engage in satellite telecommunications, supporting both commercial and governmental communication needs in an increasingly interconnected world.[85]
The path to joining INTELSAT was preceded by decades of involvement in international space and scientific organizations. Finland had gradually increased its participation in space research bodies and cooperative arrangements within European and global frameworks. These efforts were motivated by a desire to keep pace with technological advancements, benefit from technology transfer, and establish Finland’s presence in international space and telecommunications cooperation.[85]
Joining INTELSAT in 1999 complemented Finland’s broader foreign and technology policy goals in the 1990s, a decade marked by significant integration into international organizations such as the European Union in 1995 and active engagement in global scientific and policy forums. This step underscored Finland’s commitment to modernizing its telecommunications infrastructure and leveraging global satellite networks to enhance its communication capabilities for both civilian and government purposes.[85]
Finland’s relationship with NATO began to strengthen immediately after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, when Finland joined the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC) as an observer in 1992, established for former Warsaw Pact members. Finland started to move closer to NATO by joining the Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1994, developing cooperation in defense matters while maintaining military non-alignment. From the 1990s onwards, Finland built increasingly closer ties with NATO, participating in international crisis management operations and signing a host nation support agreement with NATO in 2014, which defined the principles of assistance during crises and exercises.[86]
Finland has participated in NATO's Partnership for Peace cooperation since 1994. Additionally, Finland became a member of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) in 1997. In 2014, Finland was invited as an advanced partner to join NATO's Enhanced Opportunities Partner (EOP) cooperation. Alongside its involvement in the Enhanced Opportunities cooperation, Finland also promoted trilateral cooperation between NATO, Finland, and Sweden, known as the "30+2" cooperation framework.[87]
As the security environment changed, especially following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in early 2022, Finland’s security policy situation became decisive. Finland decided to apply for NATO membership in May 2022. The Finnish Parliament strongly approved the membership, with opponents in the minority. Finland’s NATO membership came into force on April 4, 2023, making Finland a full member and part of NATO’s collective defense guarantees under Article 5.[88]
This membership marked the end of Finland’s long-standing military non-alignment and strengthened Finland’s security in a changed European security landscape. Finland’s membership also enhances stability and security in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe, with Finland actively participating in NATO’s collective defense and decision-making.[89]
Diplomatic relations list
List of countries which Finland maintains diplomatic relations with:
Finland recognised Namibia on March 21, 1990. Both countries established diplomatic relations on the same day. Namibia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. Finland has an embassy in Windhoek and an honorary consulate in Walvis Bay.
A South African legation was established in 1967 and relations were then upgraded to ambassadorial level in March 1991.[108] Finland has an embassy in Pretoria, a general consulate in Johannesburg, and a consulate in Cape Town. South Africa is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. During World War II South Africa declared war on Finland.[109]
Finland was a strong supporter of the dismantling of Apartheid in South Africa.[109][110][111]
South African exports to Finland include fresh and dried fruits, wine, pulp, paper, iron, steel, and coal. South Africa imports telecommunication equipment, paper, board products, and machinery from Finland.[108]
President of Tunisia Habib Bourguiba visiting Valio on his visit in Finland 1963.
Finland recognised Tunisia's independence on June 8, 1956.
Since 1994 Finland has an embassy in Tunis. Previously Finland was represented in Tunisia through its embassies in Algiers, Algeria, and Rome, Italy.[112]
Chile recognised Finland's independence on June 17, 1919. Diplomatic relations between them were established in 1931 and have been continuously maintained, despite pressures at times to discontinue them.[115] The two countries maintain resident ambassadors in both capitals.[115]
The relations between Colombia and Finland are harmonious as both countries share a similar ideology based on democracy, human rights and a lasting peace. It's because of this that Colombia has decided to open an embassy in Helsinki. Colombia also defines Finland as a key player on Colombia's accession into the OECD and the ratification of the Colombia-European Union Trade Agreement.[116]
5-25-1988 President Reagan meeting with President Mauno Henrik Koivisto during a trip to Finland at the Helsinki airport in Vantaa Relations between the United States and Finland are warm. Some 200,000 US citizens visit Finland annually, and about 3,000 US citizens are resident there. The US has an educational exchange program in Finland that is comparatively large for a Western European country of Finland's size. It is financed in part from a trust fund established in 1976 from Finland's final repayment of a US loan made in the aftermath of World War I.
Finland is bordered on the east by Russia and, as one of the former Soviet Union's neighbours, has been of particular interest and importance to the US both during the Cold War and in its aftermath. Before the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, longstanding US policy was to support Finnish neutrality and to maintain and reinforce Finland's historic, cultural, and economic ties with the West. The US has welcomed Finland's increased participation since 1991 in Western economic and political structures.
Economic and trade relations between Finland and the United States are active and were bolstered by the F-18 purchase. US-Finland trade totals almost $5billion annually. The US receives about 7% of Finland's exports – mainly wood pulp and paper, ships, machinery, electronics and instruments and refined petroleum products[126] – and provides about 7% of its imports – principally computers, semiconductors, aircraft, and machinery.
Armenia is represented in Finland by a non-resident ambassador (based in Yerevan at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
Finland is represented in Armenia by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
Azerbaijan is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden) and an honorary consulate in Helsinki.
Finland is represented in Azerbaijan by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Baku.
Finland is represented in Georgia by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.
Georgia is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden) and an honorary consulate in Helsinki.
Photograph of the Shah and the Shahbanu during their visit to Tapiola residencial area in Espoo, Finland. To their right, the Finnish president Urho Kekkonen.
Finland recognized the People's Democratic Republic of Korea on April 13, 1973.[148]
Finland condemns North Korean nuclear tests and fully agrees with EU foreign policy statements on this matter.[148]
International trade has been irregular and sporadic, and it is controlled by UN and EU sanctions.[149]
Finland has contributed to humanitarian assistance to North Korea through the Red Cross and the World Food Programme.[149]
Neither Finland nor North Korea currently have resident ambassadors. North Korea is represented by the North Korean embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.[149] Finland is represented by the Finnish embassy in Seoul, South Korea.[150]
Finland is an EUmember and Turkey is an EUcandidate. Finland supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.
Both countries are full members of the Nordic Council and the Nordic Passport Union, with no border controls or limitations on travel and residence. On cases concerning an individual, authorities must arrange translations between Finnish and Danish, if necessary.
Denmark and Finland share a long history, where Danish Vikings settled in Finland and made crusades. Both countries were also part of the Kalmar Union.[167] Denmark was the first country along with Sweden to recognize Finland's Independence.
There are 3,000 Finns living in Denmark, and 1,235 Danes living in Finland. During Winter War, over 1,000 Danish volunteers came to help Finland.[168] During the Winter war and the Continuation war, Denmark took 4,200 Finnish war children.[169] Exports to Denmark value at 1.380 billion euros, and imports from Denmark value at 1.453 billion, making Denmark Finland's 10th largest import-trading partner. The Nordic Culture Fund and the Finnish-Danish Cultural Fund support projects of artists in both countries. Many tourists from Finland visit Denmark, 206,000 in 2017, and vice versa: 113,000 Danish tourists visited Finland in 2017. In 1918 Mannerheim visited Copenhagen, asking if Prince Aage would have wanted to become the King of Finland.
Finland's main language, Finnish, is related to Estonian, and there is and has been a certain feeling of kinship. 76% of Finns have visited Estonia and in 2004, 1.8million Finns reported visiting Estonia. Finnish and Swedish investors are the largest foreign investors in Estonia.[170] Finland and Estonia are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement, freeing international travel and trade between the countries.
Finland's government recognised Estonia's independence in 1920. In response to the Soviet invasion, diplomatic missions were de facto removed. However, when Estonia declared independence, this "temporary obstruction" was resolved. Both countries restored diplomatic relations on August 29, 1991.
Germany recognised Finland's independence on January 4, 1918.
Germany gave direct military support to Finnish independence by training Finnish Jägers and successfully intervened in Finnish Civil War in favor of the nationalist Whites.
During World War II, the secret protocol in Molotov–Ribbentrop pact enabled Winter War (1939–40), a Soviet attack on Finland. Finland and Nazi Germany were "co-belligerents" against Soviet Union during Continuation War (1941–44), but a separate peace with Soviet Union led to the Finnish-German Lapland War (1944–45).
Hungary recognised Finland on August 23, 1920. Finland recognised Hungary on September 10, 1920.
Finland broke off diplomatic relations on September 20, 1944.
Diplomatic relations were re-established on May 20, 1947.
Both national languages, Finnish and Hungarian, are Uralic languages, which has led to cultural exchange albeit at a much smaller scale compared to the third major Uralic-speaking country, Estonia.
Finland has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.
Both countries are full members of the Nordic Council and the Nordic Passport Union, with no border controls or limitations on travel and residence. On cases concerning an individual, authorities must arrange translations between Finnish and Icelandic, if necessary.
Finland recognised Lithuania's independence de facto on November 14, 1919, and de jure on October 14, 1921.
Finland recognised Lithuania's independence on 28 August 1991, and the two countries started diplomatic relations the very same day. Finland is a key partner and neighbour to Lithuania, with the countries pursuing active cooperation in the fields of economy, energy, regional, information security, to name a few. Currently, there are 11 bilateral agreements regulating the relationship between Lithuania and Finland different fields.[184]
Finland has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda.
Finland is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome, Italy, and an honorary consulate in Valletta.
Malta is represented in Finland by a non-resident ambassador (based in Valletta at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Helsinki.
Both countries are full members of the Nordic Council and the Nordic Passport Union, with no border controls or limitations on travel and residence. On cases concerning an individual, authorities must arrange translations between Finnish and Norwegian, if necessary.
Relations with Russia are peaceful and friendly. Finland imports a lot of goods and basic necessities, such as fuel, and the two nations are agreeing on issues more than disagreeing on them. [needs update]
Finland was a part of the Russian Empire for 108 years, after being annexed from the Swedish empire. Discontent with Russian rule, Finnish national identity, and World War I eventually caused Finland to break away from Russia, taking advantage of the fact that Russia was withdrawing from World War I and a revolution was starting in earnest. Following the Finnish Civil War and October Revolution, Russians were virtually equated with Communists and due to official hostility to Communism, Finno-Soviet relations in the period between the world wars remained tense. Voluntary activists arranged expeditions to Karelia (heimosodat), which ended when Finland and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Tartu in 1920. However, the Soviet Union did not abide by the treaty when they blockaded Finnish naval ships. Finland was attacked by the Soviet Union in 1939. Finland fought the Winter War and the Continuation War against the Soviets in World War II. During the wars, the Finns suffered 90,000 casualties and inflicted severe casualties on the Russians (120,000 dead in the Winter War and 200,000 in the Continuation War).
Contemporary issues include problems with border controls causing persistent truck queues at the border, airspace violations, pollution of the Baltic Sea, and Russian duties on exported wood to Finland's pulp and paper industry. Russia also considered large swathes of land near the Finnish border as special security area where foreign land ownership is forbidden. A similarly extensive restriction does not apply to Russian citizens. The Finnish Defence Forces and Finnish Security Intelligence Service have suspected that Russians have made targeted land purchases near military and other sensitive installations for intelligence or special operations purposes.[193][194] Right-wing commentators accuse the government of continuing the policy of Finlandisation.
Recently, Finland-Russia relations have been under pressure with annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, which Finland considers illegal. Together with the rest of the European Union, Finland enforces sanctions against Russia that followed. Still, economic relations have not entirely deteriorated: 11.2% of imports to Finland are from Russia, and 5.7% of exports from Finland are to Russia, and cooperation between Finnish and Russian authorities continues.[195]
Tensions between the countries rose in late 2008 when a news program on Finland's national broadcasting company station YLE accused Finnish weapons manufacturer Patria of bribing Slovenian officials to secure an arms deal. Slovenian Prime Minister Janez Janša formally complained to the Finnish ambassador in Ljubljana.[199] This controversy became known as the Patria case.
Finland and Sweden have always had very close relations, resulting from shared history, numerous commonalities in society and politics, and close trade relations. A newly appointed Foreign Minister makes his or her first state visit to Sweden. Finnish politicians often consider Sweden's reaction to international affairs first as a base for further actions, and thus finally both countries often agree on such issues. If there has ever been any dissonance between the two countries those were the Åland question in the early 1920s and the Swedish declaration of non-belligerent status during the Winter War. Finland and Sweden are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement, freeing international travel and trade between the countries. Furthermore, both participate in the Nordic Council, which grants Swedish nationals slightly more extensive rights than the EU/Schengen treaties alone.
↑ Pietiläinen, Tuomo; Parkkonen, Santtu; teksti; Gröndahl, Jukka; kuvat (November 16, 2005). "Helsingistä tuli jälleen vakoilun keskus". Helsingin Sanomat (in Finnish). Retrieved September 20, 2025.
↑ Klimek, Antonín; Kubů, Eduard (1995). Československá zahraniční politika 1918-1938: kapitoly z dějin mezinárodních vztahů (in Czech). Institut pro středoevropskou kulturu a politiku. p.102.
1 2 "Finland". South Africa. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved May 21, 2009. Diplomatic relations were re-established in 1949. A South African legation was established in 1967 and relations were upgraded to ambassadorial level in March 1991. Finland and South Africa enjoy excellent relations and a Declaration of Intent was signed in June 2000 to facilitate bilateral consultations between South Africa and Finland.
↑ "Finland recognises Kosovo". NewsRoom Finland. Helsinki: Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. March 7, 2008. Archived from the original on March 24, 2009. Retrieved March 7, 2008.
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