The Federal Republic of Germany (up until 1990 abbreviated as FRG, opposed to GDR) is a Central European country and founding member of the European Union, a member of G4, G7, the G20, the Organizations for Economic Co-operation and Development, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the only remaining of two former German members of the United Nations. It maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than 190 countries. As one of the world's leading industrialized countries it is recognized as a major power in European and global affairs.
Germany's relations to other powers are characterized by its past and by its commitment to promote peace, stability, the rule of law and democracy, while it seeks a progressing integration into the European Union. The heavily West-aligned Germany inherited diplomatic relations and missions from communist East Germany, which was "Germany" to those countries which had only relations to one of the two German states. However, due to its allegiance and market economy, the perception of Germany by some of the former Eastern bloc countries changed with Germany's reunification.
The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since the foundation of Germany in 1871.
Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War (also named the German War or the German-German War) in 1866, excluding the Austrian Empire from Germany. The unification of Germany was the political purpose of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller German states joined behind remaining Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The German Empire was erected in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.
Germany's diplomatic weight increased by transitioning its economy and society from an agrarian country to Europe's second industrial powerhouse, which soon sought competition with the leading economic power of that era, Great Britain. As from 1884, Germany engaged – as the last major European power – in oversea colonization, but held only few colonies for economical exploitation, leaving Germany vulnerable to the protectionist mercantilism of other colonial powers who controlled the world's market of raw materials. Germany's development and transition led to internal tensions, which Emperor Wilhelm II., infamous for his Hun speech throughout Europe and an increasing diplomatic liability, sought to hedge with naval armament and increased imperialism much to the suspicion of the other European powers, especially the Entente Cordiale. Encircled by the Triple Entente, and due to the negligence of Germany's emperor and his diplomatic advisors by giving Austria-Hungary a "blank cheque" on treating Entente-allied Serbia for the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the Empire of Germany had to fight back its enemies in a war on multiple fronts and was cut off from international trade routes, leading to hunger and impoverishment in Europe's most populous country.
Germany was defeated in the battlefield in 1918, with its riches turning to spoils for the victors. The country had neither say nor seat at the table on which the victors negotiated how Germany and its treasures would be apportioned. The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to convey away Alsace-Lorraine to France, a part of East Prussia to the Second Polish Republic and to accept the occupation of major industrial areas around Germany's centers for coal and steel production in Silesia and the Rhine province. When Germany was unable to fulfill the Allied demand for reparations in gold, France occupied the Ruhr valley to shave Germany's coal production. The Weimar Republic had to solve these crises to gain back its international stand in diplomacy, which lead Germany to joining the League of Nations in 1926.
However, the ransack and ongoing compromisation of Germany after World War I came with a toll on its internal stability and put the republic's attempt to establish peace and order to failure and its diplomatic influence from marginal to inept. Political extremist factions from left and right put the screws on Germany's politics by rallying against the weakened republic. International indifference to the events in the defeated country only turned into cautious unease after the Reichstag fire and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933. The newly appointed chancellor ran on a platform of revising the Treaty of Versailles by rearmament, shaking off the shackles of occupation and "gaining room to live" (occupation) in the East. Racial and genocidal undertones in his program were internationally ignored as the new government was able to establish the long-sought peace and order in Germany and pursued international recognition as a stabilizing power: although Hitler's government withdrew Germany's membership from the League of Nations in 1933 much to the wary of the remaining nations, Germany managed to appease the world by hosting the Olympic Games of 1936 and presenting the world a stable, progressive and prospering country while secretly starting a program for rearmament at the same time. Shortly after the games, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, which sought to establish a common sphere of interest between Germany and Japan and their allied countries as well. Initially the pact was directed against the Soviet Union.
Despite its public presentation, Germany soon would raise suspicion by its rapidly progressing military programs, which weren't overlooked by international press. With massive interference in the internal affairs of Austria, which was unable to overcome economical challenges for 20 years after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany managed to annex Austria in the Anschluss, reversing the resolution of the German war 70 years earlier and violating the Treaty of Versailles once again, which forbade the union of both countries. Germany tested its newly gained strength on boosting the Sudeten crisis of 1938, as Sudeten Germans, attracted by Germany and its success, rebelled against Czechoslovak authorities. The crisis lead to the Munich Agreement, the first gain in territory for Germany since World War I. However, Hitler was dissatisfied with how the crisis was solved peacefully. The policy of appeasement by Neville Chamberlain allowed for Hitler to violate the agreement shortly after signing it, by dissolving the Czechoslovak government and occupying the rest of the country in 1939, followed by the wary European powers of France and Great Britain to draw a red line for Poland. Germany signed the Pact of Steel with Italy, shaping with the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan before and with the Tripartite Pact later on, what will come to be the Axis alliance.
After signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the USSR on 24 August 1939, which led Japan to distance itself from Germany until the Tripartite Pact was signed in 1940, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, with the declaration of war followed by Britain and France three days later. The declarations of war did little to change the outcome of the Blitzkrieg against Poland, which soon was occupied by German and Soviet forces. Less than two years later, Germany would invade the USSR under violation of the pact. The same year, the Axis-allied Japanese Empire would attack Pearl Harbor, and as Germany was bound to aid Japan diplomatically by the Tripartite Pact, Hitler declared war against the USA four days after, unintentionally ending any remaining meaningful isolationist opposition in the U.S. against joining the European war and changing the U.S. stance to the rest of the world to this day.
The following years, German diplomacy is occupied with supporting the war effort and keeping together the Axis alliance as well as attending to the minor Axis-allied governments in Europe, such as Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria (all Warsaw Pact states after the Soviet Union won the war in the East) and Croatia to facilitate the "Final Solution". As Germany found itself on the losing side over time, Germany's diplomacy lost its ability to back up the increasingly futile war effort. Only the invocation of favors and long-lasting diplomatic aid and relationships with countries like Chile and Argentina, as well as their own network, enabled the escape of some Nazi high-ranks and collaborators into exile, such as Dr. Josef Mengele. The government of Germany, and therefore its diplomatic corps, ceased to exist according to the Allied Control Council's 1st Proclamation.
Germany as a state was only reestablished in August 1949 in three of the four Allied occupation zones, but international representation for the state was not reestablished until 15 March 1951. As a habit, chancellor Konrad Adenauer employed former Nazis for his administration, and for foreign affairs, he employed former NSDAP diplomats, which left a dark stain on the founding history of the newly formed Federal Foreign Office as a democratic institution.
The first years of the Bonn republic were characterized by the efforts of a second democratic Germany to rehabilitate itself in the eyes of the world. Adenauer's government decided to align West Germany with the Western bloc and made controversial decisions in its early years. Only ten years after World War II has ended, his government decided to rearm Germany once again, founding the Bundeswehr in 1955 and joining the NATO, after he discarded Stalin's attempt to negotiate reunification and neutralization of Germany in 1952. The years of Germany's division and the relations of the two German states, West-German FRG and East-German GDR, to each other mirrored the grander conflict at the Iron Curtain and the two systems. Mutual distrust, exclusion and agitation against one another captured the division of the two German nations. The FRG would characterize any attempt to open diplomatic relations to "the other German state" as an unfriendly act which would provoke the closure of the West-German diplomatic mission in the attempting country. The GDR assumed the sole right of representation for all Germans within the Eastern bloc. However, West Germany attracted some of the communist countries to open diplomatic missions despite the risk of spurning the East-German government, as the Eastern bloc was in dire need of hard currency and its members tried to open channels to markets which would trade in such.
In the 1970s, chancellor Willy Brandt would attempt to ease the relations between the two German states to prevent future confrontations like the Cuba crisis a few years earlier, in which the world narrowly escaped a World War III and nuclear annihilation. West Germany acknowledged the borders which were established after World War II, namely the Oder–Neisse line with Poland. The chancellor's Kniefall von Warschau would mark a major pivot point in the international perception of Germany, from a defeated and criminal warmongering power to a society which collectively would feel ashamed by its past, would swear to abstain military power and dominance and to uphold peace and to seek friendly relations with the People Germany wronged in the past. The gesture found cautiously positive remarks internationally, and Willy Brandt was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1971, to this day the only German chancellor ever being awarded the prize. 1973, both East and West Germany became United Nations members.
Willy Brandt's policies helped grander diplomatic efforts between the two super powers and would bear fruit shortly after his tenure, when the Helsinki Accords were signed in 1975. The Accords enabled organizations of the civil society and NGOs to assess whether the Soviet Union would abide the legally binding declarations it signed, for the rule of law, civil liberties and guarantees of property. They also lead to the arising of human rights activism in the East bloc and to media activity directed from the West towards the East.
"Leonid Brezhnev had looked forward, Anatoly Dobrynin recalls, to the 'publicity he would gain... when the Soviet public learned of the final settlement of the postwar boundaries for which they had sacrificed so much'... '[Instead, the Helsinki Accords] gradually became a manifesto of the dissident and liberal movement'... What this meant was that the people who lived under these [communist] systems — at least the more courageous — could claim official permission to say what they thought."
Especially for the partaking East German government, which was confident at first the Accords would denote a victory for East bloc diplomacy, the Accords would turn out to be a calamity in internal affairs. West German media, consumed by the East German population despite attempts of inhibition, informed their audience about their rights the East German government just signed off on, very much including the sensitive issue of freedom of movement, especially between the two German states which shared a fortified and dangerous-to-life border, symbolized by the Berlin Wall. Ever since the Accords have been signed, the East German government had to face increasing mail of citizens who petitioned for "permanent departure" to West Germany, invoking the Helsinki Accords.
As East Germany's economical situation became untenable in the 1980s, West German prime minister of Bavaria, Franz Josef Strauß, procured a new credit line for the GDR in 1983, which (by its interest) would impede the economical collapse of East Germany. Combined with the growing frictions within East Germany's society and the continuous escape movement of Germans through Eastern Europe and diplomatic missions of Germany, the GDR would survive its 40th anniversary and peaceful protests by only less than a year, with the collapse of its communist government heavily quickened by negotiations of West Germany to enable the "permanent departure" of Germans by a non-stop train from the Czech Republic through East Germany to West Germany. The departure met intense media coverage, creating a lasting impression on both sides of the German border and forecasting the eventual fall of the Berlin Wall.
In 1990, both German states with both freely elected governments, as well as the four former occupying powers, would sign an agreement about Germany's future. The agreement became effective on 3 October of the same year, which became the German Unity Day.
Primary institutions and actors
Federal Cabinet
The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office. In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction. The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function. Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.
Bundestag
With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity. Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy. The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties. If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag.[2]
In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation. Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position.[3] A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.[3]
NGOs
There is a raft of NGOs in Germany that engage foreign policy issues. These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge). While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one. In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking.[4] The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of conflict resolution, development cooperation and humanitarian aid for fragile states. The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy.[4]
In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country.[clarification needed]
The government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder backed the following U.S. military actions, sending Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the Taliban.
Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops.[5] This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States.
In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains. The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains.
As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led International Security Assistance Force force in Afghanistan as part of the War on Terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200).[6] German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country.
However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan.[7][8]
Global initiatives
Humanitarian aid
Germany is the largest net contributor to the United Nations and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East. The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[9] It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France.[10] Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010. The international target of 0.7% of GNP would have not been reached either.
European integration has gone a long way since the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:
Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany. Germany seeks to maintain peace through the "deepening" of integration among current members of the European Union member states
Germany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.
A meeting of NATO heads of States and governments on 11 July 2018 in Brussels
Under the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, as part of the Reform of the United Nations. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.
This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes. The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body.[11] The U.S. is sending mixed signals.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 November 1960 when has been accredited first Ambassador of FRG to Mauritania with residence in Dakar, M. Reichhold. On 6 May 1961 first Ambassador of Mauritania to FRG M. Mamadou Toure presented his credentials to President Lubke.[47]
The Federal Republic of Germany Germany ended diplomatic relations on January 14, 1963, due to the Hallstein Doctrine, two days after Cuba recognized the German Democratic Republic.
Diplomatic relations were re-established on 18 January 1975.
Formal diplomatic relations between the two countries have existed since the 19th century. These were severed on January 26, 1943, during World War II, and resumed on 28 June 1951 (only with the Federal Republic of Germany).
Former chancellorAngela Merkel has sought warmer relations with the United States and to rebuild political ties on common values and beliefs.
United States has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Leipzig and Munich, as well as a consular agency in Bremen.[108]
Uruguay has an embassy in Berlin, a general consulate in Hamburg and five honorary consulate (in Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Essen, Munich, and Stuttgart).
Germany was one of the first nations to recognise Afghan sovereignty, following the Soviet Union in 1991.[112]
Afghanistan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Grünwald.[113]
Germany had an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-i-Sharif.[113]
Afghanistan and Germany established close ties in 1935, as Afghanistan sought to break from their historical patterns of British and Russian alignment. Afghanistan resisted calls from Moscow and London to expel the Italian and German diplomatic corps for most of World War II.[114]
Armenian-German relations have always been stable and solid; they continue to work together and advance through the years in cooperation. Their leaders have discussed bilateral relations and noted that they have considerably improved over the last few years.[115]
Armenia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, Magdeburg, and Munich.[116]
Germany has an embassy in Yerevan and an honorary consulate in Gyumri.[116]
After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 East Germany was the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognise Bangladesh in 1972.[120] Bangladesh also warmly greeted German reunification. As an economic power as well as an important member of the European Union (EU), Germany is a reliable partner of Bangladesh in development cooperation. After establishment of diplomatic relations, the bilateral relations between the two countries began to grow steadily. Bangladesh is a priority partner country of German Development Cooperation (GTZ). In trade with Germany, Bangladesh has for years recorded a large surplus. Germany is the second largest export market of Bangladesh after the US. The cultural relationship of both the countries is very strong. The cultural cooperation between them is mainly channeled through the Goethe Institute that work on developing the cultural ties between both the countries by sponsoring local and German cultural activities. Both Germany and Bangladesh share common views on various international issues and work together in the UN and in other international forum. They have maintained and developed close and friendly relations in a wide range of field. The two countries are harmonized together by their commitment to various sectors mutually agreed upon, which is expected to be strengthened further in future.[citation needed]
The Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of Bhutan have maintained diplomatic relations since 25 November 2020. This move further deepened the friendly relations between the two countries. Consular relations have been in place since July 2000. Bhutan has agreed to let Germany set up an honorary consulate in Thimphu. Bhutan has an honorary consulate-general in Germany.
Bhutan is represented in Germany through its mission to the EU in Brussels.
Germany is represented in Bhutan through its embassy in India.[122]
Germany has good relationships with the People's Republic of China, even though Angela Merkel and large parts of Germany's political class have recently criticised the People's Republic for holding back reforms in the field of democracy and human rights. In recent years trade between them has reached high volumes, both in imports and exports.[citation needed] In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Germany, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang internment camps.[126][127]
China has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and an Economic and Trade Office of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong.
There are no formal diplomatic relations between Hong Kong and Germany, due to the character of Hong Kong being a Special Administrative Region and not an independent nation.
Hong Kong has an Economic and Trade Office in Berlin.
Germany has a consulate-general in Hong Kong.[129]
During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.[130] Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Germany was one of the first countries to agree with the Indo-US Nuclear deal.
Indonesia and Germany has traditionally enjoyed good, intensive and wide-ranging relations.
Germany and Indonesia, as the largest members of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), respectively, take similar positions on many issues relating to the development of the two regional organizations.[141]
Indonesia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.
Germany-Israel relations refers to the special relationship between Israel and Germany based on shared beliefs, Western values and a combination of historical perspectives.[145] Among the most important factors in their relations is Nazi Germany's role in the genocide of European Jews during the Holocaust.[146] Following German history during the Holocaust, one of Postwar Germany's aims was to establish and maintain relations of Wiedergutmachung with the State of Israel. Starting with the Reparations Agreement in 1952, support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy. Germany has been actively involved in the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in 1979, the Oslo Accords (1993) which led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the continuing Israeli–Palestinian peace process which make Germany arguably (next to the United States) Israel's closest ally.[citation needed]
Israel has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.
Regular meetings between the two countries have led to several cooperations. In 2004 German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan,[148][149] the promotion of economic exchange activities,[150] youth and sports exchanges[151] as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.[152] After China, Japan is Germany's principal trading partner in Asia in 2006.[153]
Japan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich.
Germany has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate-general in Osaka.[154]
Pakistan and Germany enjoy extremely close, warm and historical relations.[168] Germany is Pakistan's fourth largest trading partner and biggest trading partner in the EU. Germany has been a reliable partner in trade, development, military, scientific and cultural co-operation. The collaboration between Germany and Pakistan dates back to the creation of Pakistan. Germany is home to 53,668 Pakistani immigrants.[citation needed]
Pakistan has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Frankfurt, and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, and Isartal.[169]
Germany has an embassy in Islamabad, a consulate-general in Karachi, and an honorary consulate in Lahore.[169]
The relationship between Germany and the Philippines remains strong and positive. In 1955 an agreement was signed which led to a dynamic cooperation between the two countries.[citation needed]
The Philippines has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
The German embassy in Damascus reopened on 20 March 2025.[180]
Syria was from 22 February 1958 until 28 September 1961 part of the United Arab Republic. In 1961 Syria left the union with Egypt and re-established its independence.
Good Turkish/Ottoman-German relations from the 19th century onwards. They were allies in First World War. Germany promoted Turkish immigration after 1945 when it suffered an acute labor shortage. They were called Gastarbeiter (German for guest workers). Most Turks in Germany trace their ancestry to Central and Eastern Anatolia. Today, Turks are Germany's largest ethnic minority and form most of Germany's Muslim minority. Berlin is home to about 250,000 Turks,[185] making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey.
Turkey has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Hürth, Karlsruhe, Mainz, Munich, Münster, Nuremberg, and Stuttgart.[186]
Germany is an EUmember and Turkey is an EUcandidate. Germany opposes Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.
The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of NATO.
Germany was one of the first nations to recognize Croatia and Slovenia as independent nations, rejecting the concept of Yugoslavia as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-Belgrade policy). This is why Serb authorities sometimes referred to "new German imperialism" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse.[citation needed][192] German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring "peace and stability" to the Balkans.
Central Europe
Weimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).
There are more than 200,000 Croats who live in Germany. Historically Germany has had a close collaboration with Croatia.
Croatia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart,[202] and honorary consulates in Dresden and Mainz.[203]
Germany has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Osijek.[203]
In 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees was signed, designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students' admission to German and Cypriot universities.
There is a close and trustful cooperation at a government level. Minister of State Hoyer visited Cyprus on 11 and 12 February 2010. Federal Foreign Minister Westerwelle met with his Cypriot counterpart Marcos Kyprianou in Berlin on 2 March.[citation needed]
Cyprus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.[204]
Czech Republic has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Dresden and Munich, a consulate in Düsseldorf, and honorary consulates in Dortmund, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Rostock.
Being the historic core of Europe and the "twin engine for European integration", the cooperation with France is one of the most central elements of German foreign policy. The Elysée Treaty from 1963 set the foundation for a collaboration that – next to the European project – also repeatedly called for a "Core Union" with maximum integration.[210] In recent times, France and Germany are among the most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU. They are sometimes described as the "twin engine" or "core countries" pushing for moves.[citation needed]
France has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Saarbrücken, Suttgart.[211]
Hungary has an embassy in Berlin,[215] consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Munich, and Stuttgart, an honorary consulate-general in Bremerhaven, and honorary consulates in Dresdener, Erfurt, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Schwerin.
Germany has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.[216]
German-Icelandic cultural relations go back more than a thousand years; they share a Germanic cultural background.[citation needed]
Iceland has an embassy in Berlin and nine honorary consulates in Bremen, Cologne, Cuxhaven, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart, and Warnemünde.[217]
Italy has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-generals in Cologne, Frankfurt, Hannover, Munich, and Suttgart, consulates in Freiburg and Dortmund, and a consular agency in Wolfsburg.
Germany has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.[219]
Diplomatic relations were first established following Latvia's independence from Russian rule, under agreement signed in Berlin on 15 July 1920.[222] These relation lasted until the Soviet take over of Latvia in 1940.[citation needed]
Relations were reestablished in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Latvia has an embassy in Berlin[223] and honorary consulates in Bremen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Künzelsau, Munich and Rostock.[224]
Relations were established following the unification of Germany in 1871.
During the First World War, the German army refrained from attacking the Netherlands, and thus relations between the two states were preserved. At war's end in 1918, the former Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands, where he lived till his death in 1941.
The German army occupied the Netherlands during the Second World War and kept the country under occupation in 1940–1945.[citation needed]
Netherlands has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich.
Germany has an embassy in The Hague and a consulate-general which is at the same time an embassy outpost in Amsterdam.[235]
During the Cold War, communist Poland had good relations with East Germany, but had strained relations with West Germany. After the fall of communism, Poland and the reunited Germany have had a mostly positive but occasionally strained relationship due to some political issues. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Germany has been a proponent of Poland's participation in NATO and the European Union. The Polish-German border is 467km long.[238]
Poland has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Cologne, Hamburg, and Munich.
Germany has an embassy in Warsaw, consulates-general in Gdańsk, Kraków, Wrocław and a consulate in Opole, which is an outpost of the consulate-general in Wrocław.[239]
Portugal has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Stuttgart, and an outpost of the consulate-general Stuttgart in Hattersheim am Main.
Germany tries to keep Russia engaged with the rest of the Western world. The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democracy in Russia, which is part of the Western world.[citation needed]
↑ Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War. London: Penguin. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-141-02532-2
↑ Feld, Werner (2012). Reunification and West German-Soviet Relations: The Role of the Reunification Issue in the Foreign Policy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949–1957, with Special Attention to Policy Toward the Soviet Union. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN9789401194082.
1 2 Collins, Stephen (2002). German Policy-Making and Eastern Enlargement of the European Union During the Ko: Managing the Agenda?. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. p.49. ISBN0719063280.
1 2 Werner, Andreas (2016). NGOs in Foreign Policy: Security Governance in Germany and the Netherlands. Munster, Germany: Waxmann Verlag. pp.19–20. ISBN9783830934073.
↑ Scholler, Heinrich (2007). 100 Jahre deutsch-äthiopische diplomatische Beziehungen: von der traditionellen Monarchie zum modernen Staat. LIT Verlag Münster. p.28.
↑ ARR Arab Report and Record. Economic Features, Limited. 1978. p.44. Djibouti and West Germany had established diplomatic relations, the West German Foreign Ministry announced on 23 January.
↑ Was will Bonn in Afrika? zur Afrikapolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (in German). Centuarus. 1992. p.122. .. der BRD und der DDR ... Tabelle 1: Zeitpunkt der Aufnahme diplomatischer Beziehungen ... Kap verde 02.06.1980 05.08.1975
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World/European diplomatic context
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Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1957) excerpt and text search, advanced coverage of all major powers
Bierling, Stephan. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Normen, Akteure, Entscheidungen. 2. Auflage. München: Oldenbourg, 2005 ISBN3-486-57766-2.
von Bredow, Wilfried. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Eine Einführung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2006 ISBN3-531-13618-6.
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