The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since 1871.
Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its German Confederation were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its Zollverein network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. The unification of Germany was made possible by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in which the smaller states joined behind Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The German Empire was put together in 1871 by Otto von Bismarck, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.
Primary institutions and actors
Federal Cabinet
The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office. In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction. The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function. Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.
Bundestag
With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity. Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy. The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties. If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag.[1]
In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation. Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position.[2] A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.[2]
NGOs
There is a raft of NGOs in Germany that engage foreign policy issues. These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge). While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one. In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking.[3] The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of conflict resolution, development cooperation and humanitarian aid for fragile states. The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy.[3]
In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country.[clarification needed]
The government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder backed the following U.S. military actions, sending Bundeswehr troops to Afghanistan to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the Taliban.
Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops.[4] This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States.
In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains. The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains.
As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led International Security Assistance Force force in Afghanistan as part of the War on Terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200).[5] German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country.
However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive combat operations in southern Afghanistan.[6][7]
Global initiatives
Humanitarian aid
Germany is the largest net contributor to the United Nations and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East. The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[8] It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France.[9] Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010. The international target of 0.7% of GNP would have not been reached either.
European integration has gone a long way since the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:
Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany. Germany seeks to maintain peace through the "deepening" of integration among current members of the European Union member states
Germany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union.
A meeting of NATO heads of States and governments on 11 July 2018 in Brussels
Under the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, as part of the Reform of the United Nations. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.
This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes. The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body.[10] The U.S. is sending mixed signals.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 November 1960 when has been accredited first Ambassador of FRG to Mauritania with residence in Dakar, M. Reichhold. On 6 May 1961 first Ambassador of Mauritania to FRG M. Mamadou Toure presented his credentials to President Lubke.[37]
The Federal Republic of Germany Germany ended diplomatic relations on January 14, 1963, due to the Hallstein Doctrine, two days after Cuba recognized the German Democratic Republic.
Diplomatic relations were re-established on 18 January 1975.
Formal diplomatic relations between the two countries have existed since the 19th century. These were severed on January 26, 1943, during World War II, and resumed on 28 June 1951 (only with the Federal Republic of Germany).
Former chancellorAngela Merkel has sought warmer relations with the United States and to rebuild political ties on common values and beliefs.
United States has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Leipzig and Munich, as well as a consular agency in Bremen.[97]
Uruguay has an embassy in Berlin, a general consulate in Hamburg and five honorary consulate (in Bremen, Frankfurt am Main, Essen, Munich, and Stuttgart).
Germany was one of the first nations to recognise Afghan sovereignty, following the Soviet Union in 1991.[101]
Afghanistan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Bonn and Grünwald.[102]
Germany had an embassy in Kabul and a consulate-general in Mazar-i-Sharif.[102]
Afghanistan and Germany established close ties in 1935, as Afghanistan sought to break from their historical patterns of British and Russian alignment. Afghanistan resisted calls from Moscow and London to expel the Italian and German diplomatic corps for most of World War II.[103]
Armenian-German relations have always been stable and solid; they continue to work together and advance through the years in cooperation. Their leaders have discussed bilateral relations and noted that they have considerably improved over the last few years.[104]
Armenia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, Magdeburg, and Munich.[105]
Germany has an embassy in Yerevan and an honorary consulate in Gyumri.[105]
After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971 East Germany was the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognise Bangladesh in 1972.[109] Bangladesh also warmly greeted German reunification. As an economic power as well as an important member of the European Union (EU), Germany is a reliable partner of Bangladesh in development cooperation. After establishment of diplomatic relations, the bilateral relations between the two countries began to grow steadily. Bangladesh is a priority partner country of German Development Cooperation (GTZ). In trade with Germany, Bangladesh has for years recorded a large surplus. Germany is the second largest export market of Bangladesh after the US. The cultural relationship of both the countries is very strong. The cultural cooperation between them is mainly channeled through the Goethe Institute that work on developing the cultural ties between both the countries by sponsoring local and German cultural activities. Both Germany and Bangladesh share common views on various international issues and work together in the UN and in other international forum. They have maintained and developed close and friendly relations in a wide range of field. The two countries are harmonized together by their commitment to various sectors mutually agreed upon, which is expected to be strengthened further in future.[citation needed]
The Governments of the Federal Republic of Germany and the Kingdom of Bhutan have maintained diplomatic relations since 25 November 2020. This move further deepened the friendly relations between the two countries. Consular relations have been in place since July 2000. Bhutan has agreed to let Germany set up an honorary consulate in Thimphu. Bhutan has an honorary consulate-general in Germany.
Bhutan is represented in Germany through its mission to the EU in Brussels.
Germany is represented in Bhutan through its embassy in India.[111]
Germany has good relationships with the People's Republic of China, even though Angela Merkel and large parts of Germany's political class have recently criticised the People's Republic for holding back reforms in the field of democracy and human rights. In recent years trade between them has reached high volumes, both in imports and exports.[citation needed] In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Germany, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang internment camps.[115][116]
China has an embassy in Berlin, an embassy outpost in Bonn, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, and an Economic and Trade Office of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong.
There are no formal diplomatic relations between Hong Kong and Germany, due to the character of Hong Kong being a Special Administrative Region and not an independent nation.
Hong Kong has an Economic and Trade Office in Berlin.
Germany has a consulate-general in Hong Kong.[118]
During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved. The German ambassador to India, Bernd Mutzelburg, once said that India and Germany, are not just 'natural partners', but important countries in a globalised world. Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited India recently, as did the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visit Germany. Both countries have been working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council. As both countries are strong liberal democracies, they have similar objectives. UN reforms, fighting terrorism and climate change, and promotion of science, education, technology, and human rights, are some areas of shared interests, and collaboration between these two countries. Culturally too, Indian and German writers and philosophers, have influenced each other.[119] Recently, Germany has invested in developing education and skills amongst rural Indians. Germany was one of the first countries to agree with the Indo-US Nuclear deal.
Indonesia and Germany has traditionally enjoyed good, intensive and wide-ranging relations.
Germany and Indonesia, as the largest members of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), respectively, take similar positions on many issues relating to the development of the two regional organizations.[130]
Indonesia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt and Hamburg.
Germany-Israel relations refers to the special relationship between Israel and Germany based on shared beliefs, Western values and a combination of historical perspectives.[134] Among the most important factors in their relations is Nazi Germany's role in the genocide of European Jews during the Holocaust.[135] Following German history during the Holocaust, one of Postwar Germany's aims was to establish and maintain relations of Wiedergutmachung with the State of Israel. Starting with the Reparations Agreement in 1952, support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy. Germany has been actively involved in the Egypt–Israel peace treaty in 1979, the Oslo Accords (1993) which led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the continuing Israeli–Palestinian peace process which make Germany arguably (next to the United States) Israel's closest ally.[citation needed]
Israel has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Munich.
Regular meetings between the two countries have led to several cooperations. In 2004 German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan,[137][138] the promotion of economic exchange activities,[139] youth and sports exchanges[140] as well as exchanges and cooperation in science, technology and academic fields.[141] After China, Japan is Germany's principal trading partner in Asia in 2006.[142]
Japan has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Munich.
Germany has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate-general in Osaka.[143]
Pakistan and Germany enjoy extremely close, warm and historical relations.[157] Germany is Pakistan's fourth largest trading partner and biggest trading partner in the EU. Germany has been a reliable partner in trade, development, military, scientific and cultural co-operation. The collaboration between Germany and Pakistan dates back to the creation of Pakistan. Germany is home to 53,668 Pakistani immigrants.[citation needed]
Pakistan has an embassy in Berlin, a consulate-general in Frankfurt, and honorary consulates in Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, and Isartal.[158]
Germany has an embassy in Islamabad, a consulate-general in Karachi, and an honorary consulate in Lahore.[158]
The relationship between Germany and the Philippines remains strong and positive. In 1955 an agreement was signed which led to a dynamic cooperation between the two countries.[citation needed]
The Philippines has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Frankfurt.
The German embassy in Damascus closed on 19 January 2012.[169]
Syria was from 22 February 1958 until 28 September 1961 part of the United Arab Republic. In 1961 Syria left the union with Egypt and re-established its independence.
Good Turkish/Ottoman-German relations from the 19th century onwards. They were allies in First World War. Germany promoted Turkish immigration after 1945 when it suffered an acute labor shortage. They were called Gastarbeiter (German for guest workers). Most Turks in Germany trace their ancestry to Central and Eastern Anatolia. Today, Turks are Germany's largest ethnic minority and form most of Germany's Muslim minority. Berlin is home to about 250,000 Turks,[174] making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey.
Turkey has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Hürth, Karlsruhe, Mainz, Munich, Münster, Nuremberg, and Stuttgart.[175]
Germany is an EUmember and Turkey is an EUcandidate. Germany opposes Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.
The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of NATO.
Germany was one of the first nations to recognize Croatia and Slovenia as independent nations, rejecting the concept of Yugoslavia as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-Belgrade policy). This is why Serb authorities sometimes referred to "new German imperialism" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse.[citation needed][181] German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring "peace and stability" to the Balkans.
Central Europe
Weimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).
There are more than 200,000 Croats who live in Germany. Historically Germany has had a close collaboration with Croatia.
Croatia has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart,[191] and honorary consulates in Dresden and Mainz.[192]
Germany has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Osijek.[192]
In 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees was signed, designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students' admission to German and Cypriot universities.
There is a close and trustful cooperation at a government level. Minister of State Hoyer visited Cyprus on 11 and 12 February 2010. Federal Foreign Minister Westerwelle met with his Cypriot counterpart Marcos Kyprianou in Berlin on 2 March.[citation needed]
Cyprus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.[193]
Czech Republic has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Dresden and Munich, a consulate in Düsseldorf, and honorary consulates in Dortmund, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Rostock.
Being the historic core of Europe and the "twin engine for European integration", the cooperation with France is one of the most central elements of German foreign policy. The Elysée Treaty from 1963 set the foundation for a collaboration that – next to the European project – also repeatedly called for a "Core Union" with maximum integration.[199] In recent times, France and Germany are among the most enthusiastic proponents of the further integration of the EU. They are sometimes described as the "twin engine" or "core countries" pushing for moves.[citation needed]
France has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Saarbrücken, Suttgart.[200]
Hungary has an embassy in Berlin,[204] consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Munich, and Stuttgart, an honorary consulate-general in Bremerhaven, and honorary consulates in Dresdener, Erfurt, Essen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Nuremberg, and Schwerin.
Germany has an embassy in Budapest and an honorary consulate in Pécs.[205]
German-Icelandic cultural relations go back more than a thousand years; they share a Germanic cultural background.[citation needed]
Iceland has an embassy in Berlin and nine honorary consulates in Bremen, Cologne, Cuxhaven, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart, and Warnemünde.[206]
Italy has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-generals in Cologne, Frankfurt, Hannover, Munich, and Suttgart, consulates in Freiburg and Dortmund, and a consular agency in Wolfsburg.
Germany has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.[208]
Diplomatic relations were first established following Latvia's independence from Russian rule, under agreement signed in Berlin on 15 July 1920.[211] These relation lasted until the Soviet take over of Latvia in 1940.[citation needed]
Relations were reestablished in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Latvia has an embassy in Berlin[212] and honorary consulates in Bremen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Künzelsau, Munich and Rostock.[213]
Relations were established following the unification of Germany in 1871.
During the First World War, the German army refrained from attacking the Netherlands, and thus relations between the two states were preserved. At war's end in 1918, the former Kaiser Wilhelm II fled to the Netherlands, where he lived till his death in 1941.
The German army occupied the Netherlands during the Second World War and kept the country under occupation in 1940–1945.[citation needed]
Netherlands has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich.
Germany has an embassy in The Hague and a consulate-general which is at the same time an embassy outpost in Amsterdam.[224]
During the Cold War, communist Poland had good relations with East Germany, but had strained relations with West Germany. After the fall of communism, Poland and the reunited Germany have had a mostly positive but occasionally strained relationship due to some political issues. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Germany has been a proponent of Poland's participation in NATO and the European Union. The Polish-German border is 467km long.[227]
Poland has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Cologne, Hamburg, and Munich.
Germany has an embassy in Warsaw, consulates-general in Gdańsk, Kraków, Wrocław and a consulate in Opole, which is an outpost of the consulate-general in Wrocław.[228]
Portugal has an embassy in Berlin, consulates-general in Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Stuttgart, and an outpost of the consulate-general Stuttgart in Hattersheim am Main.
Germany tries to keep Russia engaged with the rest of the Western world. The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democracy in Russia, which is part of the Western world.[citation needed]
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Düsseldorf and Munich. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Kiel, and Stuttgart.[245][246][247]
Germany recorded its highest foreign direct investment with a surge in UK companies setting up operations to keep a post-Brexit presence in the EU in 2022.[250]
↑ Feld, Werner (2012). Reunification and West German-Soviet Relations: The Role of the Reunification Issue in the Foreign Policy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949–1957, with Special Attention to Policy Toward the Soviet Union. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN9789401194082.
1 2 Collins, Stephen (2002). German Policy-Making and Eastern Enlargement of the European Union During the Ko: Managing the Agenda?. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. p.49. ISBN0719063280.
1 2 Werner, Andreas (2016). NGOs in Foreign Policy: Security Governance in Germany and the Netherlands. Munster, Germany: Waxmann Verlag. pp.19–20. ISBN9783830934073.
↑ Scholler, Heinrich (2007). 100 Jahre deutsch-äthiopische diplomatische Beziehungen: von der traditionellen Monarchie zum modernen Staat. LIT Verlag Münster. p.28.
Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. A History of West Germany. Vol. 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963. Vol. 2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991 (1993), the standard scholarly history
Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the 'German Problem' During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'. in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds), New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations? Ch. 5. London: Routledge, 2018. ISBN9781138731349 .
Brandenburg, Erich. From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870-1914 (1927) online.
Buse, Dieter K., and Juergen C. Doerr, eds. Modern Germany: an encyclopedia of history, people and culture, 1871-1990 (2 vol. Garland, 1998).
Clark, Claudia. Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel (2021)
Cole, Alistair. Franco-German Relations (2000)
Feldman, Lily Gardner. Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity (Rowman & Littlefield; 2012) 393 pages; on German relations with France, Israel, Poland, and Czechoslovakia/the Czech Republic. excerpt
Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." International Affairs 92.1 (2016): 21-42. online
Gaskarth, Jamie, and Kai Oppermann. "Clashing traditions: German foreign policy in a New Era." International Studies Perspectives 22.1 (2021): 84–105. online
Geiss, Imanuel. German foreign policy, 1871–1914 (1976)
Haftendorn, Helga. German Foreign Policy Since 1945 (2006), 441pp
Hanrieder, Wolfram F. Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy (1991)
Heuser, Beatrice. NATO, Britain, France & the FRG: Nuclear Strategies & Forces for Europe, 1949-2000 (1997) 256pp
Hewitson, Mark. "Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy." English Historical Review 115.462 (2000): 570–606. in JSTOR
Kefferputz, Roderick and Jeremy Stern. "The United States, Germany, and World Order: New Priorities for a Changing Alliance." Atlantic Council: Issue Brief (2021) online
Kimmich, Christoph. German Foreign Policy 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials (2nd ed. Scholarly Resources, 1991) 264 pp.
Leitz, Christian. Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The Road to Global War (2004)
Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich (2012) excerpt
Oppermann, Kai. "National role conceptions, domestic constraints and the new 'normalcy' in German foreign policy: the Eurozone crisis, Libya and beyond." German Politics; 21.4 (2012): 502–519.
Paterson, William E. "Foreign Policy in the Grand Coalition." German politics 19.3-4 (2010): 497–514.
Papayoanou, Paul A. "Interdependence, institutions, and the balance of power: Britain, Germany, and World War I." International Security 20.4 (1996): 42–76.
Schwarz, Hans-Peter. Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction (2 vol 1995) excerpt and text search vol 2.
Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902-1914." American Historical Review 29.3 (1924): 449–473. in JSTOR
Sontag, Raymond James. Germany and England: Background of Conflict, 1848-1898 (1938)
Spang, Christian W. and Rolf-Harald Wippich, eds. Japanese-German Relations, 1895-1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion (2006)
Weinberg, Gerhard L. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany (2 vol, 1970–80).
Wright, Jonathan. Germany and the Origins of the Second World War (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) 223pp. online review
Young, William. German Diplomatic Relations 1871-1945: The Wilhelmstrasse and the Formulation of Foreign Policy (2006); how the foreign ministry shaped policy
World/European diplomatic context
Albrecht-Carrié, René. A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction that gives context to Germany's roles
Kaiser, David E. Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France, and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939 (Princeton UP, 2015).
Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (1989) excerpt and text search; very wide-ranging, with much on economic power
Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline
Langer, William. European Alliances and Alignments 1870-1890 (2nd ed. 1950); advanced coverage of Bismarckian system
Langer, William L. The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902 (2 vol, 1935)
Macmillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 (2013) cover 1890s to 1914; see esp. ch 3–5, 8,
Mowat, R. B. A History of European Diplomacy 1815-1914 (1922), basic introduction
Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 (1996)
Steiner, Zara. The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933 (2007) excerpt and text search
Steiner, Zara. The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939 (2011) excerpt and text search
Taylor, A. J. P. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1957) excerpt and text search, advanced coverage of all major powers
Bierling, Stephan. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Normen, Akteure, Entscheidungen. 2. Auflage. München: Oldenbourg, 2005 ISBN3-486-57766-2.
von Bredow, Wilfried. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Eine Einführung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2006 ISBN3-531-13618-6.
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