Racism in Germany

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Racism in German history is inextricably linked to the Herero and Namaqua genocide in colonial times. Racism reached its peak during the Nazi regime which eventually led to a program of systematic state-sponsored murder known as The Holocaust. According to reports by the European Commission, milder forms of racism are still present in parts of German society. Currently the racism has been mainly directed towards Asian and African countries [1] by both the state and through the citizens which includes being impolite and trying to interfere in internal matters of African countries by the diplomats. [2] [3]

Contents

19th and early 20th centuries

Herero people chained up in 1904 Herero chained.jpg
Herero people chained up in 1904

When Germany struggled to become a belated colonial power in the 19th century, several atrocities were committed, most notably the Herero and Namaqua Genocide in what is now Namibia. The German authorities forced the survivors of the genocide into concentration camps.

Eugen Fischer, a German professor of medicine, anthropology and eugenics conducted "medical experiments on race" in these camps, including sterilizations and injections of smallpox, typhus and tuberculosis. He advocated the genocide of alleged "inferior races" stating that "whoever thinks thoroughly about the notion of race, cannot arrive at a different conclusion". [4]

The Herero genocide has commanded the attention of historians who study complex issues of continuity between this event and the Nazi Holocaust. [5] According to Clarence Lusane, an Associate Professor of Political Science at the American University School of International Service, Fischer's experiments can be seen as testing ground for later medical procedures used during the Nazi Holocaust. [4]

Against the Polish population

The Germanization policies against the Polish population in Germany were largely concentrated in territories conquered from Poland during the Partitions of Poland, but they were also enforced in Silesia, Pomerania and Masuria. They were motivated by racism. [6]

The Third Reich

Corpses at the Buchenwald concentration camp Buchenwald Corpses 60623.jpg
Corpses at the Buchenwald concentration camp

After the Nazis came to power in 1933, racism became a part of the official state ideology. [7]

Shortly after the Nazis came to power, they passed the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service which expelled all civil servants who were of "non-Aryan" origin, with a few exceptions. [8]

The Nazis passed the Nuremberg Laws in 1935. The first law known as the "Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour" forbade sexual relations and marriages between people of "German blood" and Jews. [9] Shortly afterwards, the Nazis extended this law to include "Gypsies, negroes or their bastards". [10]

Although the Nazis preached racial supremacy, in several books and pamphlets they stated that they were preaching racial consciousness rather than supremacy such as:

The fundamental reason for excluding foreign-race groups from a people’s body is not discrimination or contempt, but rather the realization of otherness. Only through such thinking will it be possible for the peoples to again become healthy and able to respect each other. [11]

The Nazis believed that race determined everything and they told the Germans to be racially conscious. [11]

In the 1930s and 1940s, Nazi Germany's military conquest of Europe in the Second World War was followed by countless acts of racially motivated murder and genocide.

In its broad definition, the term Holocaust refers to an industrially run programme of state-sponsored murder by Nazi Germany, a genocide of different groups and the murder of individuals, whom the German authorities at this time defined as belonging to an "inferior race", as having "life unworthy of life" or advocating beliefs that were disturbing to their politics. The affected cultures use their own expressions such as: The Shoah (Hebrew: השואה, HaShoah, "catastrophe"; Yiddish: חורבן, Churben or Hurban, [12] in the Jewish context, the Porajmos [ˌpɔʁmɔs] (also Porrajmos or Pharrajimos, literally "devouring" or "destruction" in some dialects of the Romani language) used by Gypsies, or the Polish word "Zagłada" (literally meaning "annihilation", or "extinction") often used by Poles as a synonym of the word Holocaust. [13]

The Holocaust was one of many outbreaks of antisemitism, a term coined in the late 19th century in Germany as a more scientific-sounding term for Judenhass ("Jew-hatred"). Scientific theories on antisemitism are divided into what degree it can be subsumed under racism and to what degree it can be subsumed under other causes and mechanisms.

Late 20th century to present

Incidents in reunified Germany

More than 130 people were killed in racist street violence in Germany, in the years between 1990 and 2010, according to the German newspaper Die Zeit . [14] Only some of the most publicly noted cases are listed below. In particular, after German reunification in the 1990s a wave of racist street violence claimed numerous lives, with notable incidents including the arson attack in Mölln and the Riot of Rostock-Lichtenhagen in 1992, the Solingen arson attack of 1993, and the attack on Noël Martin in 1996.

In 2006, a black German citizen of Ethiopian descent named as Ermyas M., an engineer was beaten into a coma by two unknown assailants who called him "nigger" in an unprovoked attack that has reawakened concern about racist violence in eastern Germany. [15] He was waiting for a tram in Potsdam, near Berlin, when two people approached him shouting "nigger". When he objected, they attacked him with a bottle and beat him to the ground. [16]

Also in 2006, German-Turkish politician Giyasettin Sayan, a member of Berlin's regional assembly, was attacked by two men who called him a "dirty foreigner". Sayan, who represents the Left party, suffered head injuries and bruising after his attackers struck him with a bottle in a street in his Lichtenberg ward in the East of the city. [17]

In August 2007, a mob consisting of about 50 Germans attacked 8 Indian street vendors during a town festival in the town of Muegeln near Leipzig. [18] [19] The victims found shelter in a pizzeria owned by Kulvir Singh, one of those being chased, but the mob broke through the doors and destroyed Singh's car. All eight were injured and it took 70 police to quell the violence [20]

There is evidence that, in 2015, Professor Annette Beck-Sickinger at the University of Leipzig in Germany rejected Indian candidates on the basis of racism and stereotyping. The incidents were so severe - amid shock that they were perpetrated by an apparently 'educated' woman - that Germany's ambassador to India wrote a strongly worded letter condemning the professor, stating: "Your oversimplifying and discriminating generalization is an offense ... to millions of law-abiding, tolerant, open-minded and hard-working Indians," he wrote. "Let's be clear: India is not a country of rapists." [21] [22]

General reports

The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) noted in 2001, in its second report on the situation of the approximately 9% non- citizen population after German reunification:

(…) that, in spite of the considerable number of non-citizens who have been living in Germany for a long time or even from birth, there was a reluctance by Germany to consider itself as a country of immigration.” Persons of immigrant origin, including those who are second or third generation born in Germany, tended to remain 'foreigners' in German statistics and public discourse. [23]

Civil rights activist Ika Hügel-Marshall has complained that she and others found it difficult to be regarded as German due to their ethnic background. She co-founded the Afro-Deutsch movement in the 1980s to raise awareness of Germans with African ancestry. The movement was designed "to resist marginalization and discrimination, to gain social acceptance, and to construct a cultural identity for themselves." [24]

According to the United Nations, people with a migrant background also "are under-represented in important institutions, including the political system, the police and the courts". [25]

Public debate

Critics say that a lingering xenophobia in parts of German society is being ignored. A representative from the country's Jewish Council argued that Germany is lacking a coordinated "nationwide action plan" when it comes to right-wing extremism. [26]

A former government spokesman Uwe-Karsten Heye said that dark-skinned visitors to Germany should consider avoiding the eastern part of the country where racism runs high. "There are small and medium-sized towns in Brandenburg, as well as elsewhere, which I would advise a visitor of another skin color to avoid going to. [27] It is also reported that German police 'routinely ignore racist attacks'. [28] Former SPD politician Sebastian Edathy said "People with dark skin have a much higher risk of being a victim of an attack in eastern Germany than in western Germany." He also accused municipalities in the east of not investing enough in the prevention of right-wing extremism." [29]

Undercover journalist Günter Wallraff traveled across Germany for more than a year wearing a dark-haired curly wig and his white skin painted black, in a documentary film titled Black on White. [30] He said that "I hadn't known what we would discover, and had thought maybe the story will be, what a tolerant and accepting country we have become, unfortunately I was wrong." [30] [31]

According to a 2019 report presented by the German Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency, the number of cases of racial discrimination reported in Germany rose by almost 10% to 1,176 since 2015. [32]

Germany has an "ongoing problem with racial discrimination and does not give enough consistent legal support to victims," says Bernhard Franke, the acting head of the German anti-discrimination agency. According to him, the feeling of being left alone with injustice has "dire consequences in the long run that endanger social cohesion." [33]

Racial profiling

This section is an excerpt from Racial profiling § Germany.[ edit ]

In February 2012, the first court ruling concerning racial profiling in German police policy, allowing police to use skin color and "non-German ethnic origin" to select persons who will be asked for identification in spot-checks for illegal immigrants. [34] Subsequently, it was decided legal for a person submitted to a spot-check to compare the policy to that of the SS in public. [35] A higher court later overruled the earlier decision declaring the racial profiling unlawful and in violation of anti-discrimination provisions in Art. 3 Basic Law and the General Equal Treatment Act of 2006. [36]

The civil rights organisation Büro zur Umsetzung von Gleichbehandlung (Office for the Implementation of Equal Treatment) makes a distinction between criminal profiling, which is legitimate in Germany, and ethnic profiling, which is not. [37]

According to a 2016 report by the Interior ministry in Germany, there had been an increase in hate crimes and violence against migrant groups in Germany. [38] The reports concluded that there were more than 10 attacks per day against migrants in Germany in 2016. [38] This report from Germany garnered the attention of the United Nations, which alleged that people of African descent face widespread discrimination in Germany. [39]

A 2017 statement by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights after a visit to Germany states: "While the Basic Law guarantees equality, prohibits racial discrimination, and states that human dignity is inviolable, it is not being enforced." and calls racial profiling by police officials endemic. Recommendations include legal reform, establishing an independent complaint system, training and continuing education for the police, and investigations to promote accountability and remedy. [40]

Racist organizations in Germany

German white power skinhead Neo-Nazi Skinhead.jpg
German white power skinhead

Despite widespread rejection of Nazi Germany in modern Germany, there have been Neo-Nazi activities and organizations in post-war Germany. At times these groups face legal issues. Hence the Volkssozialistische Bewegung Deutschlands/Partei der Arbeit, Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists, Free German Workers' Party, and the Nationalist Front were all banned. The National Democratic Party of Germany has been accused of Neo-Nazi or Neo-Fascist leanings [41] [42] [43] [44] but historian Walter Laqueur writes that it cannot be classified that way. [45]

Related Research Articles

A hate crime is a prejudice-motivated crime, which occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their physical appearance or perceived membership of a certain social group.

Racism is discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity. Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. The ideology underlying racist practices often assumes that humans can be subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as inferior or superior. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, and related social phenomena.

Racial profiling or ethnic profiling is the act of suspecting, targeting or discriminating against a person on the basis of their ethnicity, religion, or nationality, rather than on individual suspicion or available evidence. Racial profiling involves discrimination against minority populations and often builds on negative stereotypes of the targeted demographic. Racial profiling can involve disproportionate stop searches, traffic stops, and the use of surveillance technology for facial identification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia</span> Dislike of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange

Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression which is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group which is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity.

The World Conference Against Racism (WCAR) is a series of international events organized by UNESCO to promote struggle against racism ideologies and behaviours. Five conferences have been held so far, in 1978, 1983, 2001, 2009 and 2021. Founded after World War II and the Holocaust as a dependent body of the United Nations, UNESCO started as soon as it was created to promote scientific studies concerning ethnic groups and their diffusion in public opinion to dispel pseudo-scientific rationalizations of racism. One of its first published works was The Race Question in 1950, signed by various internationally renowned scholars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eugen Fischer</span> German physician

Eugen Fischer was a German professor of medicine, anthropology, and eugenics, and a member of the Nazi Party. He served as director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics, and also served as rector of the Frederick William University of Berlin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Democratic Party of Germany</span> Far-right political party in Germany

The Homeland, previously known as the National Democratic Party of Germany, is a far-right Neo-Nazi and ultranationalist political party in Germany.

Incitement to ethnic or racial hatred is a crime under the laws of several countries.

Human rights in Germany enjoy a high level of protection, both in theory and in practice, and are enshrined in the Grundgesetz. The country has ratified most international human rights treaties. Reports from independent organizations such as Amnesty International certify a high level of compliance with human rights, while others, like the researcher Tobias Singelnstein, point out several issues, in particular police brutality and mistreatment of refugees. The 2008 Freedom in the World report by US-funded Freedom House gives Germany a score of "1" for both political rights and civil liberties.

This is a list of topics related to racism:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legality of Holocaust denial</span> Overview of anti-antisemitic legislation

Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany perpetrated the Holocaust: a large-scale genocidal campaign in which approximately six million European Jews were systematically murdered throughout German-occupied Europe. Since World War II, several countries have criminalised Holocaust denial—the assertion by antisemites that the genocide was a myth, fabrication or exaggeration. Currently, 17 European countries, along with Israel and Canada, have laws in place that cover Holocaust denial as a punishable offence. Many countries also have broader laws that criminalise genocide denial, including that of the Holocaust. Among the countries that have banned Holocaust denial, Russia, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania have also banned Nazi symbols. Any expression of genocide justification is also a criminal offence in several countries, as is any attempt to portray Nazism in a positive light.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Racism in Africa</span> Overview of racism in Africa

Racism in Africa has been a recurring part of the history of Africa.

Racism has been a recurring part of the history of Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Racism in Ukraine</span>

Ukraine is a multi-ethnic country that was formerly part of the Soviet Union. Valeriy Govgalenko argues that racism and ethnic discrimination has arguably been a largely fringe issue in the past, but has had a climb in social influence due to ultra-nationalist parties gaining attention in recent years. There have been recorded incidents of violence where the victim's race is widely thought to have played a role, these incidents receive extensive media coverage and are usually condemned by all mainstream political forces. Human Rights Watch reported that "racism and xenophobia remain entrenched problems in Ukraine". In 2012 the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) reported that "tolerance towards Jews, Russians and Romani appears to have significantly declined in Ukraine since 2000 and prejudices are also reflected in daily life against other groups, who experience problems in accessing goods and services". From 2006 to 2008, 184 attacks and 12 racially motivated murders took place. In 2009, no such murders were recorded, but 40 racial incidents of violence were reported. It is worth considering that, according to Alexander Feldman, president of the Association of National and Cultural Unions of Ukraine, "People attacked on racial grounds do not report the incidents to the police and police often fail to classify such attacks as racially motivated and often write them off as domestic offence or hooliganism".

The far-right in Germany slowly reorganised itself after the fall of Nazi Germany and the dissolution of the Nazi Party in 1945. Denazification was carried out in Germany from 1945 to 1949 by the Allied forces of World War II, with an attempt of eliminating Nazism from the country. However, various far-right parties emerged in the post-war period, with varying success. Most parties only lasted a few years before either dissolving or being banned, and explicitly far-right parties have never gained seats in the Bundestag post-WWII.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Racism in Sweden</span> Overview of racism in Sweden

Racism and xenophobia have been reported and investigated in Sweden. Sweden has the most segregated labor market of people with foreign background in Europe, when measured against both high and low educational level by OECD statistics. According to the European Network Against Racism, skin color and ethnic/religious background have significant impact on an individual's opportunities in the labor market.

Patrol 36 was a neo-Nazi skinhead organization in Israel, consisting of 9 members, led by Eli Bonite, alias "Ely the Nazi". The group's members were Russian immigrants that had Jewish roots aged 16 to 21. According to The Daily Telegraph, the men's families were allowed to settle in Israel under the Law of Return.

Racism in Poland in the 20th and 21st centuries has been a subject of extensive study. Ethnic minorities made up a greater proportion of the country's population from the founding of the Polish state through the Second Polish Republic than in the 21st century, when government statistics show 94% or more of the population self-reporting as ethnically Polish.

Since World War II, antisemitic prejudice in Italy has seldom taken on aggressive forms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Combat 18</span> British neo-Nazi organisation

Combat 18 is a neo-Nazi terrorist organisation that was founded in 1992. It originated in the United Kingdom, with ties to movements in Canada and the United States. Since then it has spread to other countries, including Germany. Combat 18 members have been suspected of being involved and directly responsible in the deaths of numerous immigrants, non-whites, dissidents and the German politician Walter Lübcke as well as internecine killings of C18 members.

References

  1. ↑ "'Outrageously racist': Indians slam German magazine for cartoon on India's population overtaking China". Business Today (in Hindi). 2023-04-24. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  2. ↑ "German ambassador expelled from Chad over 'impolite attitude'". Hindustan Times. 2023-04-09. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  3. ↑ "Namibia President Humiliates German Politician Trying to Intimidate Him". www.scoopernews.com. Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  4. 1 2 Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper W. (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust. Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN   978-0-571-23141-6.
  5. ↑ A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures - Continental Europe and its Empires, page 240 Edinburgh University Press 2009
  6. ↑ Nicola Piper (17 August 2018). Racism, Nationalism and Citizenship: Ethnic Minorities in Britain and Germany. Taylor & Francis. pp. 122–124. ISBN   978-0-429-83087-7.
  7. ↑ Christian Geulen: Geschichte des Rassismus, C.H. Beck, München 2007, 97f
  8. ↑ The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts, ed Roderick Stackelberg, Sally A. Winkle, Routledge, Article 3.12b First Regulation for Administration of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service
  9. ↑ Michael Burleigh; Wolfgang Wippermann (7 November 1991). The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945 . Cambridge University Press. p.  49. ISBN   978-0-521-39802-2.
  10. ↑ Burleigh, p. 50
  11. 1 2 "Heredity and Racial Science for Elementary and Secondary Schools". 1937.
  12. ↑ "Holocaust," Encyclop?dia Britannica, 2009: "the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women and children, and millions of others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Nazis called this "the final solution to the Jewish question ..."
  13. ↑ Niewyk, Donald L. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II."
  14. ↑ Die Zeit: Rechte Gewalt
  15. ↑ "Germany Shocked by Racist Attack: Ethopian-Born Man Beaten Into Coma". Der Spiegel. 2006-04-18. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  16. ↑ "Racist Attacks Have Germany on Edge Ahead of World Cup | Germany | DW.DE | null". Dw-world.de. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  17. ↑ "German-Turkish Politician Injured in Racist Attack". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  18. ↑ "Racism Alive and Well: After Attack on Indians, Germany Fears For its Reputation". Der Spiegel. 22 August 2007. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  19. ↑ "Mob Rule in Eastern Germany: Indians Attacked by Crowd at Street Party". Der Spiegel. 20 August 2007. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  20. ↑ "'Shame, Shame, Shame!': Readers React to German Racist Attack". Der Spiegel. 23 August 2007. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  21. ↑ "Second Indian rejected by German professor". BBC News. March 11, 2015.
  22. ↑ Harmeet Shah Singh, Kunal Sehgal and Greg Botelho (10 March 2015). "Professor apologizes for India rape comments". CNN.
  23. ↑ "Third report on Germany", European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2003, pp. 13, point 29
  24. ↑ Janson, Deborah (2005). "The Subject in Black and White: Afro-German Identity Formation in Ika Hügel-Marshall's autobiography Daheim unterwegs: Ein deutsches Leben". Women in German Yearbook. University of Nebraska Press. 21: 62–84. doi:10.1353/wgy.2005.0012. JSTOR   20688247. S2CID   145223259.
  25. ↑ "UN says Germany needs to tackle racism". The Local. 1962-02-28. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  26. ↑ "World Blog - Mob attack in Germany sparks outrage". Worldblog.msnbc.msn.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-16. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  27. ↑ "Is Eastern Germany Safe for Foreigners?: Racism Warning Has German Hackles Raised". Der Spiegel. 2006-05-18. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  28. ↑ de Quetteville, Harry (December 5, 2007). "German police 'routinely ignore racist attacks'". The Daily Telegraph. London.
  29. ↑ Archived February 15, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  30. 1 2 "New film uncovers racism in Germany". BBC News. November 6, 2009.
  31. ↑ Pilaeczyk, Hannah (2009-10-23). "German Journalist Criticized for Film on Racism". ABC News. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
  32. ↑ "Equal rights, equal opportunities. Annual Report of the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency" (PDF). www.antidiskriminierungsstelle.de. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  33. ↑ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche, Racism on the rise in Germany | DW | 09.06.2020 , retrieved 2021-04-17
  34. ↑ "The World from Berlin: Profiling Ruling 'Sows Seeds of Distrust and Racism'". Spiegel Online. 2012-03-29. Retrieved 2019-01-08.
  35. ↑ "Anwaltskanzlei Sven Adam Polizei-, Ordnungs- und Versammlungsrecht Oberlandesgericht Frankfurt am Main - Az.: 2 Ss 329/11".
  36. ↑ Rath, Christian (2012-10-30). "Urteil zu Kontrollen nach Hautfarbe: Gericht verbietet Polizei-Rassismus" [Judgment on checks on skin color: Court bans police racism]. Die Tageszeitung: taz (in German). ISSN   0931-9085 . Retrieved 2019-01-08.
  37. ↑ "What is ethnic profiling?". www.bug-ev.org. Archived from the original on 2018-10-17. Retrieved 2019-01-08.
  38. 1 2 "Germany hate crime: Nearly 10 attacks a day on migrants in 2016". BBC News. 2017-02-26. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
  39. ↑ Saeed, Saim (2017-02-28). "UN says racial profiling widespread in Germany". POLITICO. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
  40. ↑ "Statement to the media by the United Nations' Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent, on the conclusion of its official visit to Germany, 20-27 February 2017". Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. 27 February 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
  41. ↑ "Neo-Nazi NPD party takes hold in municipal vote in Saxony". The Local. 9 Jun 2008. Retrieved June 10, 2009. The neo-Nazi NPD party has representatives in every county council in the eastern German state of Saxony after it increased its share of the vote in municipal elections on Sunday.
  42. ↑ "Poll shows majority of Germany believe NPD to be non-democratic and damaging to Germany's image". Der Spiegel. 22 Sep 2006. Retrieved July 21, 2009.
  43. ↑ "Neonazis in der NPD auf dem Vormarsch". Süddeutsche Zeitung. 19 May 2009. Retrieved August 23, 2009. Das neonazistische Spektrum hat seinen Einfluss innerhalb der NPD ausgebaut.
  44. ↑ Verfassungsschutzbericht 2008. Verfassungsschutz. May 2009. p. 51. Retrieved August 23, 2009. Auch 2008 ist es in der Kooperation zwischen der NPD und der Neonazi-Szene zu erheblichen Spannungen gekommen.
  45. ↑ Laqueur, Walter (1996). Fascism, Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press. p. 110.

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