 | The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints .(November 2023) |
Making the desert bloom is a Zionist slogan. It often refers to Israeli afforestation and agricultural projects.
| The examples and perspective in this article may not include all significant viewpoints .(November 2023) |
Making the desert bloom is a Zionist slogan. It often refers to Israeli afforestation and agricultural projects.
The Levant has long had settled agriculture, being a part of the Fertile Crescent. Crop domestication is said to have arisen in the Southern Levant around 11,000 BCE. [1] Under the Ottoman Empire, Palestine operated under the musha’ system, which relied on a clan structure to rotate plots based on soil fertility and other natural factors to ensure an equivalency based on quality of the earth. [2] [3] After the Land Code of 1858, communal rights continued to be enabled by the existence of miri land, which allowed the release of land from the Ottoman government to be formally owned by a clan's sheik and worked by fellahin. [3]
The climate of the Levant is varied and includes the marshes and scrublands of Mediterranean zones (dry, hot summers with short, rainy winters), the Steppes, the desert, consisting of the Negev and Judean Desert, and lastly tropical microclimates inside the Judean Desert. Most of the endemic flora in these areas of the Levant, aside from crops like cereals, olives and citrus, are in the form of forests, Lotus and herbaceous vegetation, and shrubs. [4] Around 47.6% of the land is arable. [5] By 1945, 30% of land was cultivated by around 60% of the rural, non-nomadic Palestinian population. [6]
The first usage of the term is traced back to 1969, when former Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol said in a speech: “What are the Palestinians? When I came here there were 250,000 non-Jews, mainly Arabs and Bedouins. It was desert. More than underdeveloped. Nothing. It was only after we made the desert bloom that they became interested in taking it from us.” [7]
The land was described by many early Zionists and foreign visitors to the area as desolate. In 1902, Theodor Herzl portrayed the landscape in his novel Altneuland , which was modeled after his trip to Palestine in 1898:
The landscape through which they passed was a picture of desolation. The low-lands were mostly sand and swamp, the lean fields looked as if burnt over. The inhabitants of the blackish Arab villages looked like brigands. Naked children played in the dirty alleys. Over the distant horizon loomed the deforested hills of Judea. The bare slopes and the bleak, rocky valleys showed some traces of present or former cultivation.
40 years earlier, Mark Twain provided an account of the scenery on the way to Jerusalem in his humorous travel book, The Innocents Abroad :
We traversed some miles of desolate country whose soil is rich enough, but is given over wholly to weeds—a silent, mournful expanse, wherein we saw only three persons—Arabs ... The further we went the hotter the sun got, and the more rocky and bare, repulsive and dreary the landscape became. There could not have been more fragments of stone strewn broadcast over this part of the world ... There was hardly a tree or a shrub any where. Even the olive and the cactus, those fast friends of a worthless soil, had almost deserted the country. No landscape exists that is more tiresome to the eye than that which bounds the approaches to Jerusalem.
However, descriptions of the coast differ, such as Sir Fredrick Treves' recounting of the various gardens and forests of Jaffa: "the town, except where it fronts the sea, is hemmed around by orange gardens, and the green of the orange tree never falters or grows dim." He also notes the hedges of prickly pear and groves of sycamore, locust, oleander, cedar, and olive that adorn the streets, and how in spring, the path to Jerusalem is filled with flowers. [8]
Ahad Ha'am, in an article called Truth from Eretz Israel, similarly spoke of cultivation and vegetation within Palestine:
From abroad, we are accustomed to believe that Eretz Israel is presently almost totally desolate, a uncultivated desert, and that anyone wishing to buy land there can come and buy all he wants. But in truth that is not so. In the entire land, it is hard to find tillable land that is not already tilled [...] Not the peasants alone, but the owners of large properties as well, do not easily part with good land that has no drawbacks. Many of our people who came to buy land have been in Eretz Israel for months, and have toured its length and width, without finding what they seek.
In this piece, he also repudiated the common claim that those living there, cultivating the land, did so mindlessly: "From abroad we are accustomed to believing that the Arabs are all desert savages, like donkeys, who neither see nor understand what goes on around them. But this is a big mistake. The Arab, like all children of Shem, has a sharp intellect and is very cunning." [9]
The ideological basis for this phrase is rooted in the concept of the halutz. Early Zionism, as the negation of the diaspora, held the stance that Jews living in Eastern Europe had become weakened, culturally inferior, and rootless due their unsettled position between assimilation and anti-antisemitism and thus, required the creation of nation for Jews. [10] [11] In an attempt to reverse this "rootless cosmopolitan" state, the halutz, or the pioneering Jewish laborer who works the land, was born as a means to foster the "muscular Jew." [12] [13] It was believed that principally Jewish labor could transform the land and that principally agricultural labor could transform the Jewish people. [13]
The key actor in the afforestation of the region was the Jewish National Fund (JNF). Since 1901, they have planted over 250 million trees, developed 250,000 acres of land, and established over 1,000 parks. [14] The JNF purposefully chose Aleppo pine, as well as cypress and eucalyptus, as a tree that would work reasonably well with the climate and be familiar for the European Jewish population, thereby "beautifying" the land. [15] [16] [17] By 1960, 85% of all trees planted by the JNF were coniferous. [18] Later on, realizing they needed to diversify the forests, the JNF invested in other coniferous species, like Turkish pine and Stone pine, as well as deciduous and other species, like carobs, acacia, tamarisk, and palms. [15] As of 2008, 44% of the trees in Israel are pine, and endemic plants make up only 11% of forests. [18] [16]
The concept of Halutzim manifested in the form of kibbutzim and the kibbutz system became a means of connecting the new Jewish population who had come in the second and third aliyah to the land. [19] The first kibbutz was established in 1910. [20] By the time World War II broke out, there were 79 kibbutzim, consisting of 24,105 people and in 1950, the number had almost tripled with around 65,000 kibbutznikim. [21] The kibbutz movement peaked in 1989, with a population of around 129,000. [22] A large portion of kibbutznikim were young students. [13]
The kibbutzim also became a way for the expansion of settlements. Early on, Mizrahi Jews were often placed at the peripheral of Zionist settlements, sometimes leading to conflict caused by coerced placement there. [23] It also saw the inclusion of women in quasi-manual labor jobs such as in tree nurseries, which also were often placed at the peripheries, pushing for expansion. [12]
Innovations in water technologies began before the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, beginning with the creation of the company Mekorot in 1937. [24] In the following decades after its creation, Mekorot would develop numerous project in water technology, including cloud seeding and the construction of pipelines and wastewater treatment plants. [25] [26] By the '50s, water as a resource was nationalized and entrusted to the state. [27] Since the 2000s, Israel has begun to invest in desalination projects, which makes up around 60-80% of Israel's drinking water. [26] It has also become a major proponent of drip irrigation, making major strides in the technology in the '60s. [27]
With the ongoing water crisis in the area, Israel sells millions of cubic meters of water and billions of dollars worth of agricultural products annually to its neighbors Jordan and Palestine. [28] [29] Claims over water sources has played a major role in numerous conflicts between Israel and its neighbor states, including the War over Water, the Six-Day War (and the following occupation of the Golan Heights), and a few other more minor conflicts. [30]
The phrase "making the desert bloom" and well as the implementation of various Israeli afforestation and agricultural/water technology projects have been critiqued by various organizations.
The term has been criticized by anti-Zionists [ who? ] as playing into the Orientalist idea that Arab and Western Asian countries are uncivilized until Western interference. [31] Up until the 1990s, many Zionists[ who? ] held the opinion that there was degradation of the land that was due to the backwardness of Palestinians. [12] [32] Some, such as UC Davis professor of history Diana K. Davis and Palestinian climate activist Manal Shqair, have argued that the idea of "making the desert bloom" devalues land that is minimally productive. [33] [34]
The JNF has repeatably been criticized by the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel [35] and the Palestine Museum of Natural History, [36] for its extensive use of non-native plants, implementing afforestation in ecologically inappropriate areas, and aggressive planting practices, which has led to increased disease among trees, forest fires, and waning biodiversity in the fragile shrub lands. [37] [38] [39] [32] The JNF has also been criticized by the Israeli Committee Against House Demolitions, [40] Code Pink, [41] BADIL, [42] Amnesty International, [43] and others for building forests and national parks over displaced Palestinian villages and olive groves, as well as actively taking part in the eviction of Palestinians from their homes and annexation of land which has left many families landless. [44] [45] [46] [47]
Since 1967, Israel has had complete control over water resources and infrastructure in the occupied Palestinian territories (OPT), making Palestinians unable to construct or alter existing infrastructure without a permit. [48] It has been known to construct water networks for Israelis in the OPT, thereby diverting water from Palestinian towns into Israel proper and into illegal settlements. [49] [50] Israel's water policies have been criticized by various organizations, such as Amnesty International, [51] B’Tselem, [52] Human Rights Watch, [53] UNICEF, [54] and others. Manal Shqair has also critiqued Israel for depleting Jordanian water sources and subsequently selling the water back to the country. [28] Israel has also been criticized for the poisoning of Palestinian water sources, particularly during the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, which is a form of biological warfare. [55] In recent years, there has also been documentation of Israeli authorities poisoning Palestinian water sources in the West Bank. [56] [57] With the onset of the Israel-Hamas War in Gaza, Israel has reduced water access by 94%, limited the frequency of aid trucks, and damaged around 70% of existing water infrastructure. [58] [59] These actions have been critiqued by Oxfam, [60] the WHO, [61] UNICEF, [61] the World Food Programme, and others. [61]
Zionism is an ethnocultural nationalist movement that emerged in Europe in the late 19th century and aimed for the establishment of a Jewish state through the colonization of a land outside Europe. With the rejection of alternative proposals for a Jewish state, it focused on the establishment of a homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine, a region corresponding to the Land of Israel in Judaism, and of central importance in Jewish history. Zionists wanted to create a Jewish state in Palestine with as much land, as many Jews, and as few Palestinian Arabs as possible. Following the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism became Israel's national or state ideology.
The Jewish National Fund is a non-profit organization founded in 1901 to buy land and encourage Jewish resettlement in Ottoman Syria for Jewish settlement. By 2007, it owned 13% of the total land in Israel. Since its inception, the JNF has planted over 240 million trees in Israel. It has also built 180 dams and reservoirs, developed 250,000 acres (1,000 km2) of land and established more than 1,000 parks.
Kiryat Anavim is a kibbutz in the Judean Hills of Israel. It was the first kibbutz established in the Judean Hills. It is located west of Jerusalem, and falls under the jurisdiction of the Mateh Yehuda Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 489.
Ein HaShofet is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located in the Menashe Heights region around 25 km southeast of the city of Haifa, close to Yokneam, it falls under the jurisdiction of Megiddo Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 864.
Canada Park is an Israeli national park stretching over 7,000 dunams (7km2), and extending from No man's land into the West Bank. The park is located north of Highway 1, and is situated near the Ayalon Valley, between the Latrun Interchange and Sha'ar HaGai.
Simcha Blass was a Polish-Israeli engineer and inventor who developed the modern drip irrigation system with his son Yeshayahu.
HaZore'a is a kibbutz in northern Israel established in 1936 by German Jews. It is the only kibbutz that was established by members of the Werkleute movement. Located in the western rim of the Jezreel Valley, it falls under the jurisdiction of Megiddo Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 930.
Yosef Weitz was the director of the Land and Afforestation Department of the Jewish National Fund (JNF). From the 1930s, Weitz played a major role in acquiring land for the Yishuv, the pre-state Jewish community in Palestine.
Anarchism in Israel has been observed in the early Kibbutz movement, among early Labor Zionists as well as an organised movement in Israel following the 1948 Palestine war. Anarchism has also had a mixed relationship with Zionism and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, with +972 Magazine publishing an article claiming anarchists were "the only group in Israel engaged in serious anti-occupation activism." Animal rights are notably popular among Israeli anarchists, even when compared to anarchist movements in other countries.
Kalya is an Israeli settlement organized as a kibbutz in the West Bank. It was originally established in 1929 but was occupied and destroyed by the Jordanians in 1948; it was later rebuilt in 1968 after the Six-Day War. Located on the northern shore of the Dead Sea, 360 meters below sea level, it falls under the jurisdiction of Megilot Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 490.
Mishmar HaEmek is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located in the western Jezreel Valley, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Megiddo Regional Council. Mishmar HaEmek is one of the few kibbutzim that have not undergone privatization and still follow the traditional collectivist and socialist kibbutz model. In 2022, it had a population of 1,278. At least six former members of the Knesset hail from Mishmar HaEmek.
Birya is an agricultural village in northern Israel. Located in the Upper Galilee near Safed, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Merom HaGalil Regional Council. As of 2022 its population was 872.
Qumya, was a Palestinian village of 510 inhabitants when it was depopulated prior to the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.
Gvulot is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the north-western Negev desert, it falls under the jurisdiction of Eshkol Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 421. Gvulot is located about 120 m above sea level.
Gvat is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located near Migdal HaEmek in the Jezreel Valley, it falls under the jurisdiction of Jezreel Valley Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 965. The kibbutz founded the Plastro company, one of the world's largest drip irrigation systems manufacturers.
Bror Hayil is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located near Sderot, it falls under the jurisdiction of Sha'ar HaNegev Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 1,063.
Ramat HaShofet is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located in the Menashe Heights, it falls under the jurisdiction of Megiddo Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 1,186.
Matzuva, also known as Metzuba, is a kibbutz in the Western Galilee in northern Israel. Located to the south of the development town of Shlomi, it falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Asher Regional Council. In 2022 it had a population of 1,163.
Alon Tal is an Israeli politician, academic and environmentalist. He was a member of the 24th Knesset between 2021 and 2022, representing the Blue and White political party; founder of the Israel Union for Environmental Defense and the Arava Institute for Environmental Studies; and co-founder of Ecopeace: Friends of the Earth–Middle East, This Is My Earth, the Israel Forum for Demography, Environment and Society, Aytzim: Ecological Judaism, and the Green Movement. Tal was appointed chair of the Department of Public Policy at Tel Aviv University in 2017.
The 1948 Palestine war was fought in the territory of what had been, at the start of the war, British-ruled Mandatory Palestine. During the war, the British withdrew from Palestine, Zionist forces conquered territory and established the State of Israel, and over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled. It was the first war of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the broader Arab–Israeli conflict.