Afforestation

Last updated

An afforestation project in Rand Wood, Lincolnshire, England New afforestation looking into Rand Wood - geograph.org.uk - 329908.jpg
An afforestation project in Rand Wood, Lincolnshire, England

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees (forestation) in an area where there was no recent tree cover. [1] In comparison, reforestation means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc. [2] There are three types of afforestation: Natural regeneration, agroforestry and tree plantations. [3] Afforestation has many benefits. In the context of climate change, afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion (from water and wind), floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products. [3]

Contents

Several countries have afforestation programs to increase carbon dioxide removal from forests and to reduce desertification. However, afforestation on grasslands and savanna areas can be problematic. Carbon sequestration estimates in those areas often do not include the full amount of carbon reductions in soils and slowing tree growth over time. Also afforestation can negatively affect biodiversity through increasing fragmentation and edge effects for the habitat remaining outside the planted area.

Definition

The term afforestation means establishing new forest on lands that were not forest before (e.g. abandoned agriculture). [1] The same definition in other words states that afforestation is "conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests". [4] :1794

In comparison, reforestation means the "conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but that has been converted to some other use". [4] :1812

Types

There are three types of afforestation: [3]

  1. Natural regeneration (where native trees are planted as seeds; this creates new ecosystems and increases carbon sequestration).
  2. Agroforestry (this is essentially an agricultural activity carried out in order to grow harvestable crops such as fruits and nuts).
  3. Tree plantations (carried out in order to produce wood and wood-pulp products; this can be seen as an alternative to cutting down naturally-occurring forests).

Procedure

The process of afforestation begins with site selection. Several environmental factors of the site must be analyzed, including climate, soil, vegetation, and human activity. [5] These factors will determine the quality of the site, what species of trees should be planted, and what planting method should be used. [5]

After the forest site has been assessed, the area must be prepared for planting. Preparation can involve a variety of mechanical or chemical methods, such as chopping, mounding, bedding, herbicides, and prescribed burning. [6] Once the site is prepared, planting can take place. One method for planting is direct seeding, which involves sowing seeds directly into the forest floor. [7] Another is seedling planting, which is similar to direct seeding except that seedlings already have an established root system. [8] Afforestation by cutting is an option for tree species that can reproduce asexually, where a piece of a tree stem, branch, root, or leaves can be planted onto the forest floor and sprout successfully. [9] Sometimes special tools, such as a tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster. [10]

Benefits

There are several benefits from afforestation such as carbon sequestration, increasing rainfall, prevention of topsoil erosion (from water and wind), flood and landslide mitigation, barriers against high winds, shelter for wildlife, employment and alternative sources of wood products. [3]

Climate change mitigation

Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation. [11] :37 By removing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon. At any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. [12] :1456Forests remove around three billion tons of carbon every year. [13] [ need quotation to verify ]This amounts to about 30% of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. [14] Therefore, an increase in the overall forest cover around the world would mitigate global warming. [15]

At the beginning of the 21st century, interest in reforestation grew over its potential to mitigate climate change. Even without displacing agriculture and cities, earth can[ clarification needed ] sustain almost one billion hectares of new forests. This would remove 25% of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and reduce its concentration to levels that existed in the early 20th century. A temperature rise of 1.5 degrees would reduce the area suitable for forests by 20% by the year 2050, because some tropical areas will become too hot. [16] The countries that have the most forest-ready land are: Russia, Canada, Brazil, Australia, the United States and China. [17]

The four major strategies are:

  • Increase the amount of forested land through reforestation
  • Increase density of existing forests at a stand and landscape scale
  • Expand the use of forest products that sustainably replace fossil-fuel emissions
  • Reduce carbon emissions caused by deforestation and degradation [12] :1456

The second strategy has to do with selecting species for tree-planting. In theory, planting any kind of tree to produce more forest cover would absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, a genetically modified variant might grow much faster than unmodified specimens. [18] :93 Some of these cultivars are under development. Such fast-growing trees would be planted for harvest and can absorb carbon dioxide faster than slower-growing trees. [18] :93A meta-analysis found that mixed species plantations would increase carbon storage alongside other benefits of diversifying planted forests. [15]

Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or subarctic regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high-albedo, snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to a positive change such as the formation of clouds. These clouds then reflect the sunlight, lowering temperatures. [12] :1457

Planting trees in tropical climates with wet seasons has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of the girth of 70,000 trees across Africa has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, Amazonia and Asia. Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering the rate of change." [19]

As of 2008 1.3 billion hectares of tropical regions were deforested every year. Reducing this would reduce the amount of planting needed to achieve a given degree of mitigation. [12] :1456

A 2019 study of the global potential for tree restoration showed that there is space for at least 9 million km2 of new forests worldwide, which is a 25% increase from current conditions. [20] This forested area could store up to 205 gigatons of carbon or 25% of the atmosphere's current carbon pool by reducing CO2 in the atmosphere. [20]

Environmental benefits

Afforestation provides other environmental benefits, including increasing the soil quality and its organic carbon levels, reducing the risk of erosion and desertification. [21] The planting of trees in urban areas is also able to reduce air pollution via the trees' absorption and filtration of pollutants, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone, in addition to CO2. [22]

Afforestation protects the biodiversity of plants and animals which allows the sustenance of ecosystems that provide clean air, soil fertilization, etc. [23]

Local climate and rain

A 2017 study gives the first observational evidence that the southern Amazon rainforest triggers its own rainy season using water vapor from plant leaves, which then forms clouds above it. [24] These findings help explain why deforestation in this region is linked with reduced rainfall. A 2009 study hypothesizes that forest cover plays a much greater role in determining rainfall than previously recognized. [25] It explains how forested regions generate large-scale flows in atmospheric water vapor and further underscores the benefit of afforestation in currently barren regions of the world.

Criticism

Afforestation in grasslands

Tree-planting campaigns are criticised for sometimes targeting areas where forests would not naturally occur, such as grassland and savanna biomes. [26] [27] [28] Carbon sequestration forecasts of afforestation programmes often insufficiently consider possible carbon reductions in soils as well as slowing tree growth over time. [29]

Impact on biodiversity

Afforestation can negatively affect biodiversity through increasing fragmentation and edge effects for the habitat remaining outside the planted area. New forest plantations can introduce generalist predators that would otherwise not be found in open habitat into the covered area, which could detrimentally increase predation rates on the native species of the area. A study by scientists at the British Trust for Ornithology into the decline of British populations of Eurasian curlew found that afforestation had impacted curlew populations through fragmentation of their naturally open grassland habitats and increases in generalist predators. [30]

Surface albedo

Questions have also been raised in the scientific community regarding how global afforestation could affect the surface albedo of Earth. The canopy cover of mature trees could make the surface albedo darker, which causes more heat to be absorbed, potentially raising the temperature of the planet. This is particularly relevant in parts of the world with high levels of snow cover, due to the more significant difference in albedo between highly reflective white snow and more darker forest cover which absorbs more solar radiation. [31] [32]

Examples

Australia

In Adelaide, South Australia (a city of 1.3 million as of June 2016), Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched an urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro area. [33] Thousands of Adelaide citizens participated in community planting days on sites including parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses and coastline. Only native trees were planted to ensure genetic integrity. Rann said the project aimed to beautify and cool the city and make it more livable, improve air and water quality, and reduce Adelaide's greenhouse gas emissions by 600,000 tonnes of CO2 a year. [34]

Canada

In 2003, the government of Canada created a four-year project called the Forest 2020 Plantation Development and Assessment Initiative, which involved planting 6000 ha of fast-growing forests on non-forested lands countrywide. These plantations were used to analyze how afforestation can help to increase carbon sequestration and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while also considering the economic and investment attractiveness of afforestation. The results of the initiative showed that although there is not enough available land in Canada to completely offset the country's GHG emissions, afforestation can be useful mitigation technique for meeting GHG emission goals, especially until permanent, more advanced carbon storage technology becomes available. [35]

On 14 December 2020, Canada's Minister of Natural Resources Seamus O'Regan announced the federal government's investment of $3.16 billion to plant two billion trees over the next 10 years. This plan aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 12 megatonnes by 2050. [36] [37]

China

Strips of forest are planted along hundreds of kilometers of the Yangtze levees in Hubei province Jiayu County - Panjiawan - on the Yangtze embankment - P1540267.JPG
Strips of forest are planted along hundreds of kilometers of the Yangtze levees in Hubei province
German Embassy Project Haloxylon ammodendron, Xinjiang, China 2017-07-22 German Embassy Project Haloxylon ammodendron, Shanshan County, Xinjiang, China anagoria 02.jpg
German Embassy Project Haloxylon ammodendron, Xinjiang, China

A law in China from 1981 requires that every school student over the age of 11 plants at least one tree per year. [39] But average success rates, especially in state-sponsored plantings, remain relatively low. And even the properly planted trees have had great difficulty surviving the combined impacts of prolonged droughts, pest infestation, and fires. Nonetheless, China had the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 4.77 million hectares (47,000 square kilometers) of afforestation in 2008. [40] Although China set official goals for reforestation, these had an 80-year time horizon and were not being significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems with projects such as the Green Wall of China, which aims to replant forests and halt the expansion of the Gobi Desert.

According to the 2021 government work report, forest coverage will reach 24 percent based on the main targets and tasks for the 14th Five-Year Plan period. [41] According to the National Forestry and Grassland Administration, China's forest coverage rate increased from 12 percent in the early 1980s to 23 percent by August 2021.

According to Carbon Brief, China planted the largest amount of new forest out of any country between 1990 and 2015, facilitated by the country's Grain for Green program started in 1999, by investing more than $100 billion in afforestation programs and planting more than 35 billion trees across 12 provinces. By 2015, the amount of planted forest in China covered 79 million hectares.

From 2011 to 2016, the city Dongying in Shandong province forested over 13,800 hectares of saline soil through the Shandong Ecological Afforestation Project, which was launched with support from the World Bank. [42] In 2017, the Saihanba Afforestation Community won the UN Champions of the Earth Award in the Inspiration and Action category for "transforming degraded land into a lush paradise". [43]

The successful afforestation of the Loess Plateau involved collaborative efforts by international and domestic professionals alongside villagers. Through this initiative, millions of villagers across four of China's poorest provinces were able to improve farming practices and increase incomes and employment, alleviating poverty. [44] In addition, the careful selection of trees ensured a healthy, self-sustainable ecosystem between tree and soil which facilitated a net carbon sink. [45] The Loess Plateau, although successful, was costly, reaching almost US$500 million. [44]

This contrasts with more recent initiatives where the results have not been as favorable. In an attempt to make afforestation both low-cost and less time-consuming, China shifted towards monoculture of mostly red pine trees. However, this did not adequately take into consideration environmental structure and led to increased soil erosion, desertification, sand/dust storms and short-lived trees. [45] This has reduced China's environmental sustainability index (ESI) [46] to one of the lowest in the world. [47]

Regarding the effects of afforestation on long-term carbon stocks and carbon sequestration these decrease when trees are less than 5 years old and increase quickly thereafter. [48] This means trees from monoculture planting that do not survive never reach full potential for carbon sequestration to offset China's carbon output. Overall, there is a possibility for afforestation to balance carbon levels and aid carbon neutrality, but several challenges still remain which hinder an all encompassing effort. [49] Over 69.3 million hectares of forest were planted across China from 1999 to 2013. This large-scale reforestation contributed to China’s forests sequestering 1.11 ± 0.38 Gt carbon per yr over the period 2010 to 2016. This amounted to about 45 percent of the yearly greenhouse gas emissions during that period in China. [50]

Europe

Afforestation on former colliery land near Cwm-Hwnt, Wales Afforestation on former colliery land near Cwm-hwnt - geograph.org.uk - 913687.jpg
Afforestation on former colliery land near Cwm-Hwnt, Wales

Europe deforested more than half of its forested areas over the last 6000 years. [51] The European Union (EU) has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland into forest and payments for the management of forest. [52] As part of the Green Deal, [53] the EU program "3 Billion Tree Planting Pledge by 2030" [54] provides direction on afforestation of previous farmland in addition to reforestation.  

According to Food and Agriculture Organization statistics, Spain had the third fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period, after Iceland and Ireland. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13.5 to 17.9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26.6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2007, that figure had risen to 36.6%. Spain today has the fifth largest forest area in the European Union. [55]

In January 2013, the UK government set a target of 12% woodland cover in England by 2060, up from the then 10%. [56] In Wales the National Assembly for Wales has set a target of 19% woodland cover, up from 15%. Government-backed initiatives such as the Woodland Carbon Code are intended to support this objective by encouraging corporations and landowners to create new woodland to offset their carbon emissions. Charitable groups such as Trees for Life (Scotland) also contribute to afforestation and reforestation efforts in the UK.

India

Afforestation in South India Marebilli forest.jpg
Afforestation in South India

As of 2023 the total forest and tree cover in India was 22%. [57] The forests of India are grouped into 5 major categories and 16 types based on biophysical criteria. 38% of the forest is categorized as subtropical dry deciduous and 30% as tropical moist deciduous and other smaller groups.

In 2016 the Indian government passed the CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) law, allowing about 40 thousand crores rupees (almost $6 Billion) to go to Indian states for planting trees. The funds were to be used for treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation of villages from protected areas, management of human-wildlife conflicts, training and awareness generation, supply of wood saving devices and allied activities. Increasing the tree cover would also help in creating additional carbon sinks to meet the nation's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030 - part of India's efforts to combat climate change.

In 2016 the Maharashtra government planted almost 20,000,000 saplings and pledged to plant another 30,000,000 the following year. In 2019, 220 million trees were planted in a single day in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. [58] [59]

Fourth year of a genetically modified forest in Iran, planted by Aras GED through commercial afforestation The fourth year of a genetically modified forest in Iran by Aras GED part of commercial afforestation in Iran.jpg
Fourth year of a genetically modified forest in Iran, planted by Aras GED through commercial afforestation

Israel

Trees in the Negev Desert. Man-made dunes (here a liman) help keep in rainwater, creating an oasis. Jewish National Fund trees in The Negev.jpg
Trees in the Negev Desert. Man-made dunes (here a liman) help keep in rainwater, creating an oasis.

With wood production as a main objective, monocultures of Aleppo pine were vigorously planted between 1948 and the 1970s. Following a massive collapse of this species in the 1990s, due to attacks by the insect pine blast scale, the Aleppo pine was gradually replaced by Pinus brutia. [60] Since the 1990s there has been a trend towards more ecological approaches planting mixed forests combining pines with broadleaf Mediterranean species e.g. oak, pistachio, carob, olive, arbutus and buckthorn. [61] About 250 million trees have been planted through the JNF across Israel since 1990.Tree coverage increased from 2% in 1948 to over 8% at present. [62]

United States

In the 1800s people moving westward in the US encountered the Great Plains – land with fertile soil, a growing population and a demand for timber but with few trees to supply it. So tree planting was encouraged along homesteads. Arbor Day was founded in 1872 by Julius Sterling Morton in Nebraska City. [63] By the 1930s the Dust Bowl environmental disaster signified a reason for adding significant new tree cover. Public works programs under the New Deal saw the planting of 18,000 miles of windbreaks stretching from North Dakota to Texas to fight soil erosion (see Great Plains Shelterbelt). [64]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon sink</span> Reservoir absorbing more carbon from, than emitting to, the air

A carbon sink is a natural or artificial process that "removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere". These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overarching term is carbon pool, which is all the places where carbon on Earth can be, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and so forth. A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation</span> Conversion of forest to non-forest for human use

Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present. This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century. Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute. Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics. In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reforestation</span> Land regeneration method (replacement of trees)

Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes. Reforestation can also help with ecosystem restoration. One method for reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tree planting</span> Process of transplanting tree seedlings

Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture and from the lower-cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by providing oxygen, improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce the oxygen we breathe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forestation</span>

Forestation is a vital ecological process where forests are established and grown through afforestation and reforestation efforts. Afforestation involves planting trees on previously non-forested lands, while reforestation focuses on replanting trees in areas that were once deforested. This process plays an important role in restoring degraded forests, enhancing ecosystems, promoting carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroforestry</span> Land use management system

Agroforestry is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits, nuts, other edible plant products, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, animals and animal products, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions are primarily caused by people burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Phasing out fossil fuel use can happen by conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and nuclear power. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Governments have pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but actions to date are insufficient to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon offsets and credits</span> Carbon dioxide reduction scheme

Carbon offsetting is a carbon trading mechanism that enables entities such as governments or businesses to compensate for (i.e. “offset”) their greenhouse gas emissions by investing in projects that reduce, avoid, or remove emissions elsewhere. When an entity invests in a carbon offsetting program, it receives carbon credits. These "tokens" are then used to account for net climate benefits from one entity to another. A carbon credit or offset credit can be bought or sold after certification by a government or independent certification body. One carbon offset or credit represents a reduction, avoidance or removal of one metric Tonne of carbon dioxide or its carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2e).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon sequestration</span> Storing carbon in a carbon pool (natural as well as enhanced or artificial processes)

Carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool. It plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic and geologic. Biologic carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process as part of the carbon cycle. Humans can enhance it through deliberate actions and use of technology. Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. These processes can be accelerated for example through changes in land use and agricultural practices, called carbon farming. Artificial processes have also been devised to produce similar effects. This approach is called carbon capture and storage. It involves using technology to capture and sequester (store) CO
2
that is produced from human activities underground or under the sea bed.

The Great Green Wall, officially known as the Three-North Shelter Forest Program, also known as the Three-North Shelterbelt Program, is a series of human-planted windbreaking forest strips (shelterbelts) in China, designed to hold back the expansion of the Gobi Desert, and provide timber to the local population. The program started in 1978, and is planned to be completed around 2050, at which point it will be 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi) long.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Nigeria</span>

Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon dioxide removal</span> Removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide through human activity

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is a process in which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities and durably stored in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. This process is also known as carbon removal, greenhouse gas removal or negative emissions. CDR is more and more often integrated into climate policy, as an element of climate change mitigation strategies. Achieving net zero emissions will require first and foremost deep and sustained cuts in emissions, and then—in addition—the use of CDR. In the future, CDR may be able to counterbalance emissions that are technically difficult to eliminate, such as some agricultural and industrial emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue carbon</span> Carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems

Blue carbon is a concept within climate change mitigation that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management." Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses can play in carbon sequestration. These ecosystems can play an important role for climate change mitigation and ecosystem-based adaptation. However, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost they release carbon back to the atmosphere, thereby adding to greenhouse gas emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peatland</span> Wetland terrain without forest cover, dominated by living, peat-forming plants

A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia. Like coral reefs, peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation and climate change</span> Relationship between deforestation and global warming

Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects the health of forests. Land use change, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities, after the burning of fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon farming</span> Agricultural methods that capture carbon

Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one of the methods for carbon dioxide removal (CDR).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proforestation</span>

Proforestation is the practice of protecting existing natural forests to foster continuous growth, carbon accumulation, and structural complexity. It is recognized as an important forest based strategy for addressing the global crises in climate and biodiversity. Forest restoration can be a strategy for climate change mitigation. Proforestation complements other forest-based solutions like afforestation, reforestation and improved forest management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate-smart agriculture</span> System for agricultural productivity

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a set of farming methods that has three main objectives with regards to climate change. Firstly, they use adaptation methods to respond to the effects of climate change on agriculture. Secondly, they aim to increase agricultural productivity and to ensure food security for a growing world population. Thirdly, they try to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture as much as possible. Climate-smart agriculture works as an integrated approach to managing land. This approach helps farmers to adapt their agricultural methods to the effects of climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reforestation in Nigeria</span>

Reforestation in Nigeria employs both natural and artificial methods. Reforestation involves the deliberate planting of trees and restoring forested areas that have been depleted or destroyed. It involves a planned restocking of the forest to ensure sustainable supply of timber and other forest products. Reforestation, in essence, involves replenishing forests to guarantee a consistent and sustainable supply of timber and various other forest resources. This objective can be accomplished through either natural regeneration techniques or artificial regeneration methods. Both of these approaches have been utilized in the reforestation efforts within Nigeria's forests. At the initiation of the reforestation program in Nigeria, the natural regeneration approach was chosen for two primary reasons. Firstly, it aimed to preserve the rainforest in its original state by allowing it to regenerate naturally from the existing seed bank in the soil. Secondly, and of significant importance, this method was selected due to budgetary constraints, as there were insufficient funds available to establish plantations through direct means.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fruit production and deforestation</span>

Fruit production is a major driver of deforestation around the world. In tropical countries, forests are often cleared to plant fruit trees, such as bananas, pineapples, and mangos. This deforestation is having a number of negative environmental impacts, including biodiversity loss, ecosystem disruption, and land degradation.

References

  1. 1 2 Terms and definitions – FRA 2020 (PDF). Rome: FAO. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2019.
  2. "Reforestation - Definitions from Dictionary.com". dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Lark, Rachel (2 October 2023). "The Importance of Afforestation". Environment Co. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  4. 1 2 IPCC, 2022: Annex I: Glossary [van Diemen, R., J.B.R. Matthews, V. Möller, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, A. Reisinger, S. Semenov (eds)]. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.020
  5. 1 2 Duan, Jie; Abduwali, Dilnur (10 March 2021), Cristina Gonçalves, Ana (ed.), "Basic Theory and Methods of Afforestation", Silviculture, IntechOpen, doi: 10.5772/intechopen.96164 , ISBN   978-1-83968-448-7 , retrieved 25 March 2021
  6. Knapp, Benjamin O.; Wang, G. Geoff; Walker, Joan L.; Cohen, Susan (1 May 2006). "Effects of site preparation treatments on early growth and survival of planted longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) seedlings in North Carolina". Forest Ecology and Management. 226 (1): 122–128. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.01.029. ISSN   0378-1127.
  7. Grossnickle, Steven C.; Ivetić, Vladan (30 December 2017). "Direct Seeding in Reforestation – A Field Performance Review". Reforesta (4): 94–142. doi: 10.21750/REFOR.4.07.46 . ISSN   2466-4367.
  8. Dey, Daniel C.; Jacobs, Douglass; McNabb, Ken; Miller, Gary; Baldwin, V.; Foster, G. (1 February 2008). "Artificial Regeneration of Major Oak (Quercus) Species in the Eastern United States—A Review of the Literature". Forest Science. 54 (1): 77–106. doi: 10.1093/forestscience/54.1.77 . ISSN   0015-749X.
  9. Kauffman, J. Boone (1991). "Survival by Sprouting Following Fire in Tropical Forests of the Eastern Amazon". Biotropica. 23 (3): 219–224. Bibcode:1991Biotr..23..219K. doi:10.2307/2388198. ISSN   0006-3606. JSTOR   2388198.
  10. Sweeney, Bernard W.; Czapka, Stephen J.; Petrow, L. Carol A. (1 May 2007). "How Planting Method, Weed Abatement, and Herbivory Affect Afforestation Success". Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 31 (2): 85–92. doi: 10.1093/sjaf/31.2.85 . ISSN   0148-4419.
  11. IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
  12. 1 2 3 4 Canadell, J.G.; M.R. Raupach (13 June 2008). "Managing Forests for Climate Change" (PDF). Science. 320 (5882): 1456–1457. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1456C. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.573.5230 . doi:10.1126/science.1155458. PMID   18556550. S2CID   35218793.
  13. Henkel, Marlon (22 February 2015). 21st Century Homestead: Sustainable Agriculture III: Agricultural Practices. Lulu.com. p. 126. ISBN   978-1-312-93975-2.
  14. Bellassen, Valentin; Luyssaert, Sebastiaan (13 February 2014). "Carbon sequestration: Managing forests in uncertain times". Nature News. 506 (7487): 153–5. doi: 10.1038/506153a . PMID   24527499.
  15. 1 2 Warner, Emily; Cook-Patton, Susan C.; Lewis, Owen T.; Brown, Nick; Koricheva, Julia; Eisenhauer, Nico; Ferlian, Olga; Gravel, Dominique; Hall, Jefferson S.; Jactel, Hervé; Mayoral, Carolina; Meredieu, Céline; Messier, Christian; Paquette, Alain; Parker, William C. (2023). "Young mixed planted forests store more carbon than monocultures—a meta-analysis". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 6. Bibcode:2023FrFGC...626514W. doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1226514 . ISSN   2624-893X.
  16. Rosane, Olivia (5 July 2019). "Planting Billions of Trees Is the 'Best Climate Change Solution Available Today,' Study Finds". Ecowatch. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  17. "Planting 1 trillion trees could stop climate change, argues study". Deutsche Welle. AP, Reuters, AFP. 4 July 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2019.
  18. 1 2 "A changing climate of opinion?". The Economist. Vol. 387. 2008. pp. 93–96. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  19. Adam, David (18 February 2009). "Fifth of world carbon emissions soaked up by extra forest growth, scientists find". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
  20. 1 2 Bastin, Jean-Francois; Finegold, Yelena; Garcia, Claude; Mollicone, Danilo; Rezende, Marcelo; Routh, Devin; Zohner, Constantin M.; Crowther, Thomas W. (5 July 2019). "The global tree restoration potential". Science. 365 (6448): 76–79. Bibcode:2019Sci...365...76B. doi:10.1126/science.aax0848. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   31273120.
  21. Suganuma, H.; Egashira, Y.; Utsugi, H.; Kojima, T. (July 2012). "Estimation of CO2 reduction amount by arid land afforestation in Western Australia". 2012 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium: 7216–7219. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2012.6351997. S2CID   31123240.
  22. Freedman, Bill; Keith, Todd (11 April 1996). "Planting trees for carbon credits: a discussion of context, issues, feasibility, and environmental benefits". Environmental Reviews. 4 (2): 100–111. doi:10.1139/a96-006.
  23. Why is biodiversity important? (2018). Retrieved 28 April 2023, from https://www.conservation.org/blog/why-is-biodiversity-important
  24. Jonathon S. Wright, Rong Fu, John R. Worden, Sudip Chakraborty, Nicholas E. Clinton, Camille Risi, Ying Sun, Lei Yin, Rainforest-initiated wet season onset, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Aug 2017, 114 (32) 8481-8486; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1621516114
  25. Douglas Sheil, Daniel Murdiyarso, How Forests Attract Rain: An Examination of a New Hypothesis; BioScience, Volume 59, Issue 4, April 2009, Pages 341–347, https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.4.12
  26. Dasgupta, Shreya (1 June 2021). "Many Tree-Planting Campaigns Are Based on Flawed Science". The Wire Science. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
  27. "Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands?". Scienceline. 28 May 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
  28. Bond, William J.; Stevens, Nicola; Midgley, Guy F.; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (November 2019). "The Trouble with Trees: Afforestation Plans for Africa". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34 (11): 963–965. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003. hdl: 20.500.11820/ad569ac5-dc12-4420-9517-d8f310ede95e . PMID   31515117. S2CID   202568025.
  29. Maschler, Julia; Bialic-Murphy, Lalasia; Wan, Joe; Andresen, Louise C.; Zohner, Constantin M.; Reich, Peter B.; Lüscher, Andreas; Schneider, Manuel K.; Müller, Christoph (2022), Data from: Links across ecological scales: Plant biomass responses to elevated CO2, Dryad, doi:10.5061/dryad.hhmgqnkk4 , retrieved 3 October 2022
  30. Franks, Samantha E.; Douglas, David J. T.; Gillings, Simon; Pearce-Higgins, James W. (3 July 2017). "Environmental correlates of breeding abundance and population change of Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata in Britain". Bird Study. 64 (3): 393–409. Bibcode:2017BirdS..64..393F. doi: 10.1080/00063657.2017.1359233 . ISSN   0006-3657. S2CID   89966879.
  31. Mykleby, P. M.; Snyder, P. K.; Twine, T. E. (16 March 2017). "Quantifying the trade-off between carbon sequestration and albedo in midlatitude and high-latitude North American forests". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (5): 2493–2501. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.2493M. doi:10.1002/2016GL071459. ISSN   0094-8276. S2CID   133588291.
  32. Rohatyn, Shani; Yakir, Dan; Rotenberg, Eyal; Carmel, Yohay (23 September 2022). "Limited climate change mitigation potential through forestation of the vast dryland regions". Science. 377 (6613): 1436–1439. Bibcode:2022Sci...377.1436R. doi:10.1126/science.abm9684. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   36137038. S2CID   252465486.
  33. "Projects: Adelaide Greening Strategy". www.greenadelaide.sa.gov.au.
  34. "Carbon Neutral Adelaide Status Report 2021 Final" (PDF). cdn.environment.sa.gov.au.
  35. Dominy, S.W.J. (June 2010). "A retrospective and lessons learned from Natural Resources Canada's Forest 2020 afforestation initiative". The Forestry Chronicle. 86 (3): 339–347. doi: 10.5558/tfc86339-3 .
  36. "2 Billion Trees Program". Canada.ca. Government of Canada. 16 December 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  37. "Canada calls for proposals to support 2 Billion Trees program". Woodbusiness.ca. Annex Business Media. Canadian Forest Industries magazine. 20 December 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2022.
  38. 省河道堤防建设管理局2016年工作要点 Archived 2018-04-01 at the Wayback Machine (The work goals of the provincial waterway flood protection levee administration for 2016), 2016-02-17
  39. China Forest Law Amendment atibt.org
  40. Yang, Ling. "China to plant more trees in 2009". ChinaView. Xinhua News Agency. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
  41. "Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) for National Economic and Social Development and Vision 2035 of the People's Republic of China_ News_ 福建省人民政府门户网站". www.fujian.gov.cn. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  42. "China: Afforestation Project in Shandong Improves Environment and Farmers' Incomes". World Bank. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
  43. Environment, U. N. (22 August 2019). "Saihanba Afforestation Community | Champions of the Earth". www.unep.org. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
  44. 1 2 "Restoring China's Loess Plateau". World Bank. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  45. 1 2 Li, Yifei; Shapiro, Judith (2020). China goes green: coercive environmentalism for a troubled planet = Zhong guo zou xiang lü se. Cambridge, UK Medford, MA: Polity. ISBN   978-1-5095-4312-0.
  46. Schmiedeknecht, Maud H. (2013), "Environmental Sustainability Index", in Idowu, Samuel O.; Capaldi, Nicholas; Zu, Liangrong; Gupta, Ananda Das (eds.), Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 1017–1024, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_116, ISBN   978-3-642-28036-8 , retrieved 3 February 2024
  47. Cao, Shixiong; Chen, Li; Shankman, David; Wang, Chunmei; Wang, Xiongbin; Zhang, Hong (1 February 2011). "Excessive reliance on afforestation in China's arid and semi-arid regions: Lessons in ecological restoration". Earth-Science Reviews. 104 (4): 240–245. Bibcode:2011ESRv..104..240C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.11.002. ISSN   0012-8252.
  48. Shi, Jun; Cui, Linli (30 November 2010). "Soil carbon change and its affecting factors following afforestation in China". Landscape and Urban Planning. 98 (2): 75–85. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.011. ISSN   0169-2046.
  49. Xu, Deying (1 January 1995). "The potential for reducing atmospheric carbon by large-scale afforestation in China and related cost/benefit analysis". Biomass and Bioenergy. Forestry and Climate Change. 8 (5): 337–344. Bibcode:1995BmBe....8..337X. doi:10.1016/0961-9534(95)00026-7. ISSN   0961-9534.
  50. Zhang, Xianghua; Busch, Jonah; Huang, Yingli; Fleskens, Luuk; Qin, Huiyan; Qiao, Zhenhua (2023). "Cost of mitigating climate change through reforestation in China". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 6. Bibcode:2023FrFGC...629216Z. doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2023.1229216 . ISSN   2624-893X.
  51. Roberts, N.; Fyfe, R. M.; Woodbridge, J.; Gaillard, M.-J.; Davis, B. a. S.; Kaplan, J. O.; Marquer, L.; Mazier, F.; Nielsen, A. B.; Sugita, S.; Trondman, A.-K.; Leydet, M. (15 January 2018). "Europe's lost forests: a pollen-based synthesis for the last 11,000 years". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 716. Bibcode:2018NatSR...8..716R. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18646-7. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   5768782 . PMID   29335417.
  52. https://ieep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/wp4_nd_afforestation_in_europe.pdf
  53. "The European Green Deal - European Commission". commission.europa.eu. 14 July 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  54. COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT The 3 Billion Tree Planting Pledge For 2030 Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS New EU Forest Strategy for 2030
  55. Vadell, Enric; de-Miguel, Sergio; Pemán, Jesús (1 September 2016). "Large-scale reforestation and afforestation policy in Spain: A historical review of its underlying ecological, socioeconomic and political dynamics". Land Use Policy. 55: 37–48. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.03.017. ISSN   0264-8377. S2CID   155200935.
  56. Westaway, Sally; Grange, Ian; Smith, Jo; Smith, Laurence G. (1 February 2023). "Meeting tree planting targets on the UK's path to net-zero: A review of lessons learnt from 100 years of land use policies". Land Use Policy. 125: 106502. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106502. ISSN   0264-8377.
  57. "Total forest and tree cover increased by 2261 square kilometre in India as per the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2021". pib.gov.in. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
  58. "Uttar Pradesh plants 220 million trees in one day". The Hindu. 13 August 2019. ISSN   0971-751X . Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  59. "Indians Plant 220 Million Trees In A Single Day". HuffPost. 11 August 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
  60. Pritchard, H. W (1 January 2001). "Ne'eman G, Traubaud L, eds. 2000. Ecology, biogeography and management of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia forest ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin. 404 pp. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers. $120 (hardback)". Annals of Botany. 87 (1): 132–133. doi:10.1006/anbo.2000.1313. ISSN   0305-7364.
  61. Perevolotsky, Avi; Sheffer, Efrat (1 December 2009). "Forest management in Israel—The ecological alternative". Israel Journal of Plant Sciences. 57 (1): 35–48. Bibcode:2009IsJPS..57...35P. doi:10.1560/IJPS.57.1-2.35 (inactive 12 February 2024). ISSN   0792-9978.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (link)
  62. "The Reforestation of Israel - Aardvark Israel". aardvarkisrael.com. 28 November 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
  63. "History at arborday.org". www.arborday.org. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  64. https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/11299/219294/Snow_umn_0130E_20031.pdf?sequence=1