Genetically modified tree

Last updated
Technician checks on genetically modified peach and apple "orchards". Each dish holds experimental trees grown from lab-cultured cells to which researchers have given new genes. Source: USDA. Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg
Technician checks on genetically modified peach and apple "orchards". Each dish holds experimental trees grown from lab-cultured cells to which researchers have given new genes. Source: USDA.

A genetically modified tree (GMt, GM tree, genetically engineered tree, GE tree or transgenic tree) is a tree whose DNA has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a novel trait to the plant which does not occur naturally within the species. Examples include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, and herbicide tolerance, or the alteration of lignin levels in order to reduce pulping costs.

Contents

Genetically modified forest trees are not yet approved ("deregulated") for commercial use with the exception of insect-resistant poplar trees in China [1] [2] and genetically modified eucalyptus in Brazil. [3] Several genetically modified forest tree species are undergoing field trials for deregulation, and much of the research is being carried out by the pulp and paper industry, primarily with the intention of increasing the productivity of existing tree stock. [4] Certain genetically modified orchard tree species have been deregulated for commercial use in the United States including the papaya and plum. [5] The development, testing and use of GM trees remains at an early stage in comparison to GM crops. [6]

Research

Research into genetically modified trees has been ongoing since 1988. [7] Concerns surrounding the biosafety implications of releasing genetically modified trees into the wild have held back regulatory approval of GM forest trees. This concern is exemplified in the Convention on Biological Diversity's stance:

The Conference of the Parties, Recognising the uncertainties related to the potential environmental and socio-economic impacts, including long term and trans-boundary impacts, of genetically modified trees on global forest biological diversity, as well as on the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities, and given the absence of reliable data and of capacity in some countries to undertake risk assessments and to evaluate those potential impacts, recommends parties to take a precautionary approach when addressing the issue of genetically modified trees. [8]

A precondition for further commercialization of GM forest trees is likely to be their complete sterility. [6] [9] Plantation trees remain phenotypically similar to their wild cousins in that most are the product of no more than three generations of artificial selection, therefore, the risk of transgene escape by pollination with compatible wild species is high. [10] One of the most credible science-based concerns with GM trees is their potential for wide dispersal of seed and pollen. [11] The fact that pine pollen travels long distances is well established, moving up to 3,000 kilometers from its source. [12] Additionally, many tree species reproduce for a long time before being harvested. [13] In combination these factors have led some to believe that GM trees are worthy of special environmental considerations over GM crops. [14] Ensuring sterility for GM trees has proven elusive, but efforts are being made. [15] While tree geneticist Steve Strauss predicted that complete containment might be possible by 2020, many questions remain. [16]

Proposed uses

GM trees under experimental development have been modified with traits intended to provide benefit to industry, foresters or consumers. Due to high regulatory and research costs, the majority of genetically modified trees in silviculture consist of plantation trees, such as eucalyptus, poplar, and pine.

Lignin alteration

Several companies and organizations (including ArborGen, [17] GLBRC, [18] ...) in the pulp and paper industry are interested in utilizing GM technology to alter the lignin content of plantation trees (particularly eucalyptus and poplar trees [19] ). It is estimated that reducing lignin in plantation trees by genetic modification could reduce pulping costs by up to $15 per cubic metre. [20] Lignin removal from wood fibres conventionally relies on costly and environmentally hazardous chemicals. [21] By developing low-lignin GM trees it is hoped that pulping and bleaching processes will require fewer inputs, [22] therefore, mills supplied by low-lignin GM trees may have a reduced impact on their surrounding ecosystems and communities. [23] However, it is argued that reductions in lignin may compromise the structural integrity of the plant, thereby making it more susceptible to wind, snow, pathogens and disease, [24] which could necessitate pesticide use exceeding that on traditional plantations. [25] This has proven correct, and an alternative approach followed by the University of Columbia was developed. This approach was to introduce chemically labile linkages instead (by inserting a gene from the plant Angelica sinensis ), which allows the lignin to break down much more easy. [26] Due to this new approach, the lignin from the trees not only easily breaks apart when treated with a mild base at temperatures of 100 degrees C, but the trees also maintained their growth potential and strength. [27]

Frost tolerance

Genetic modification can allow trees to cope with abiotic stresses such that their geographic range is broadened. [28] Freeze-tolerant GM eucalyptus trees for use in southern US plantations are currently being tested in open air sites with such an objective in mind. ArborGen, a tree biotechnology company and joint venture of pulp and paper firms Rubicon (New Zealand), MeadWestvaco (US) and International Paper (US) [29] is leading this research. [30] Until now the cultivation of eucalyptus has only been possible on the southern tip of Florida, freeze-tolerance would substantially extend the cultivation range northwards. [31]

Reduced vigour

Orchard trees require a rootstock with reduced vigour to allow them to remain small. Genetic modification could allow the elimination of the rootstock, by making the tree less vigorous, hence reducing its height when fully mature. Research is being done into which genes are responsible for the vigour in orchard trees (such as apples, pears, ...). [32] [33]

Wood volume and accelerated growth

Scientists are developing trees that can accumulate more biomass and grow faster. In 2015, a genetically modified eucalyptus variety, the event H421, which provides greater wood volume and accelerated growth, received regulatory approval in Brazil for commercial release. [34] [35] The event, developed by FuturaGene, a biotechnology company owned by Suzano, a Brazilian pulp and paper company, was created in 2000 through the Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated recombination technique, in which the cel1 gene, originating from the plant Arabidopsis thaliana , was inserted into the genome of a hybrid Eucalyptus grandis × E. urophylla . This gene encodes the enzyme endo-(1,4)-β-glucanase Cel1, whose function is related to cell wall remodeling during growth. [34] Endoglucanases act by breaking bonds in regions of non-crystalline cellulose and in xyloglucans, structural components of the plant cell wall. This process reduces the cross-linking between these fibers, increasing the flexibility of the cell wall matrix and facilitating cell expansion and elongation. [36] [37] In A. thaliana, the Cel1 enzyme is highly expressed in rapidly growing young tissues and is essential for cell elongation. [38] [39] When transferred to eucalyptus, this mechanism provided greater cell wall plasticity, allowing the cells to expand further and accumulate more biomass. [34] Stanley Hirsch, chief executive of FuturaGene has stated: "Our trees grow faster and thicker. We are ahead of everyone. We have shown we can increase the yields and growth rates of trees more than anything grown by traditional breeding." [40]

Researchers at the University of Manchester's Faculty of Life Sciences modified two genes in poplar trees, called PXY and CLE, which are responsible for the rate of cell division in tree trunks. As a result, the trees are growing twice as fast as normal, and also end up being taller, wider and with more leaves. [41]

Disease resistance

Ecologically motivated research into genetic modification is underway. There are ongoing schemes that aim to foster disease resistance in trees such as the American chestnut [42] (see Chestnut blight) and the English elm [43] (see Dutch elm disease) for the purpose of their reintroduction to the wild. Specific diseases have reduced the populations of these emblematic species to the extent that they are mostly lost in the wild. Genetic modification is being pursued concurrently with traditional breeding techniques in an attempt to endow these species with disease resistance. [44]

Insect resistance

Bt eucalyptus is a GM variety developed to resist insect attacks, particularly from defoliating lepidopterans. [45] These pests can significantly reduce productivity, with losses of up to 40% per year, [46] in addition to compromising wood quality and pulp production. [47] The company FuturaGene inserted into eucalyptus three genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This bacterium produces insecticidal proteins called Cry, which specifically target the intestines of certain caterpillars. In the case of Bt eucalyptus, the genes Cry1Ab, Cry1Bb, and Cry2Aa were introduced, ensuring broad protection against defoliators. [45] The Bt event 1521K059 was approved by CTNBio in 2023. [48]

Herbicide tolerance

FuturaGene developed and obtained approval in Brazil for the commercial use of genetically modified eucalyptus tolerant to the herbicide glyphosate. [49] These GM events received the cp4-epsps gene, which expresses a version of the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), [50] associated with the synthesis of the essential amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, [51] from the CP4 strain of the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens , which is not inhibited by glyphosate. [50] [52] [53]

Current uses

Poplars in China

In 2002 China's State Forestry Administration approved GM poplar trees for commercial use. [54] Subsequently, 1.4 million Bt (insecticide) producing GM poplars were planted in China. They were planted both for their wood and as part of China's 'Green Wall' project, which aims to impede desertification. [55] Reports indicate that the GM poplars have spread beyond the area of original planting [56] and that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is occurring. [57] There is concern with these developments, particularly because the pesticide producing trait may impart a positive selective advantage on the poplar, allowing it a high level of invasiveness. [58]

Living Carbon in the United States

Living Carbon, an American biotechnology company founded in 2019, has developed genetically engineered hybrid poplar trees aimed at enhancing carbon sequestration. These trees have been modified to improve photosynthetic efficiency, enabling them to capture more carbon dioxide (CO2) and produce greater woody biomass than conventional trees. Living Carbon’s mission is to leverage technology to combat climate change while promoting biodiversity and restoring degraded ecosystems. [59] [60]

Development and deployment

Living Carbon’s genetically modified trees were first planted in a bottomland forest in Georgia, USA, in February 2023. Early field trials indicated that these trees achieved a 53% increase in above-ground biomass compared to control groups, enabling them to absorb 27% more carbon. [60] The company generates revenue by selling carbon credits derived from these forests to individuals and businesses seeking to offset greenhouse gas emissions. [61]

Benefits and potential

Supporters of Living Carbon’s approach highlight its potential to contribute to global climate solutions, particularly if deployed on a large scale. The modified trees are targeted for use in afforestation and reforestation projects on degraded land, where they can aid in carbon capture and ecosystem restoration without displacing native species. These projects also aim to enhance biodiversity while addressing environmental degradation. [62]

Controversies and challenges

The deployment of genetically modified trees has been met with skepticism. Critics, including some forestry and genetic experts, question whether the trees will meet carbon absorption expectations outside controlled laboratory settings. Concerns have also been raised about the potential ecological risks, such as the unintended spread of genetically modified traits to wild tree populations, which could disrupt native ecosystems. [63] [64] Maddie Hall, co-founder of Living Carbon, has addressed these concerns, emphasizing the urgency of climate action and the limitations of waiting for natural evolutionary processes to improve tree resilience. However, experts note that achieving success in lab or greenhouse trials does not guarantee similar outcomes in complex, natural environments. [65]

GM Eucalyptus in Brazil

In 2015, a genetically modified eucalyptus variety, the event H421, which provides greater wood volume, received regulatory approval in Brazil for commercial release by the National Technical Commission on Biosafety (CTNBio), becoming the first genetically modified eucalyptus approved in the world. [34] Subsequently, other GM eucalyptus varieties were also approved in the country, incorporating traits of pest resistance and herbicide tolerance. [66]

Stacked traits

FuturaGene developed GM varieties that combine multiple traits of interest. In 2024, CTNBio approved event H421 × 955P082 × 1521K059, obtained through conventional crossing of these respective varieties, which combines higher productivity, glyphosate herbicide tolerance, and insect resistance. [67]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Wang, H. (2004). "The state of genetically modified forest trees in China" (PDF). Preliminary Review of Biotechnology in Forestry, Including Genetic Modification, Forest Genetic Resources Working Paper Forest Resources Development Service, Forest Resources Division. Rome, Italy. FAO (FTP). p. 96.[dead ftp link](To view documents see Help:FTP)
  2. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2005). "Will Developing Countries be the Early Adopters of Genetically Engineered Forests?" (PDF). AgBioForum. 8 (4): 205. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
  3. ↑ "Brazil approves transgenic eucalyptus". Nature Biotechnology. 33 (6): 577. 9 June 2015. doi: 10.1038/nbt0615-577c . PMID   26057961.
  4. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2010). "Transgenic Trees for Biomass: The Effects of Regulatory Restrictions and Court Decisions on the Pace of Commercialization" (PDF). AgBioForum. 13 (4): 391. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 14 November 2013.
  5. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2010). "Transgenic Trees for Biomass: The Effects of Regulatory Restrictions and Court Decisions on the Pace of Commercialization" (PDF). AgBioForum. 13 (4): 393. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 14 November 2013.
  6. 1 2 Kanowski, Peter. "Genetically-modified trees: opportunities for dialogue A scoping paper for The Forests Dialogue" (PDF). The Forest Dialogue. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
  7. ↑ Walter, C. (2010). "The 20-year environmental safety record of GM trees". Nature Biotechnology. 28 (7): 656–658. doi:10.1038/nbt0710-656. PMID   20622831. S2CID   205269523.
  8. ↑ "COP 8 Decision VIII/19 Forest biological diversity: implementation of the programme of work". Convention on Biological Diversity. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
  9. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2004). "Genetically Engineered Trees: Promise and Concerns" (PDF). Resources for the Future: 20–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  10. ↑ Bradshaw, A.H. (2001). "Plotting a course for GM forestry". Nature Biotechnology. 19 (12): 1103–1104. doi:10.1038/nbt1201-1103b. PMID   11731771. S2CID   34614487.
  11. ↑ Strauss, S.H. (2009). "Strangled at birth? Forest biotech and the Convention on Biological Diversity". Nature Biotechnology. 27 (6): 519–27. doi:10.1038/nbt0609-519. PMID   19513052.
  12. ↑ Williams, C.G. (2010). "Long-distance pine pollen still germinates after meso-scale dispersal". American Journal of Botany. 97 (5): 846–855. Bibcode:2010AmJB...97..846W. doi:10.3732/ajb.0900255. PMID   21622450.
  13. ↑ Kuparinen, A. (2008). "Assessing the risk of gene flow from genetically modified trees carrying mitigation transgenes". Biological Invasions. 10 (3): 282. Bibcode:2008BiInv..10..281K. doi:10.1007/s10530-007-9129-6. S2CID   3175905.
  14. ↑ James, R.R. (1997). "Utilizing a social ethic toward the environment in assessing genetically engineered insect-resistance in trees". Agriculture and Human Values. 14 (3): 237–249. doi:10.1023/A:1007408811726. S2CID   153218540.
  15. ↑ Ahuja, M.R. (2011). "Fate of transgenes in the forest tree genome". Tree Genetics & Genomes. 7 (2): 226. doi:10.1007/s11295-010-0339-1. S2CID   32163658.
  16. ↑ "USDA Weighs Plan to Bring GM Eucalyptus to Southeast Pinelands". New York Times. 29 January 2010. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
  17. ↑ "Genetically modified low-lignin eucalyptus yields twice the sugar". Archived from the original on 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2018-08-09.
  18. ↑ "Poplars "designed for deconstruction" a major boon to biofuels". 17 January 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2018-08-09.
  19. ↑ "Researchers design trees that make it easier to produce pulp". Ubc News. Archived from the original on 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2018-08-09.
  20. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2004). "Genetically Engineered Trees: Promise and Concerns" (PDF). Resources for the Future: 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  21. ↑ Owusu, R.A. (1999). "GM technology in the forest sector - A scoping study for WWF" (PDF). WWF: 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
  22. ↑ Nottingham, S. (2002). Genescapes - The Ecology of Genetic Engineering. Zed Books. ISBN   978-1842770375. Archived from the original on 2024-05-04. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
  23. ↑ Doering, D. S. (2001). "Will the Marketplace See the Sustainable Forest for the Transgenic Trees?" (PDF). Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Ecological and Societal Aspects of Transgenic Plantations: 70–81. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014. The communities at or near the plantations and the paper mills may receive a net environmental benefit of cleaner water and air in their communities. (p. 73)
  24. ↑ Meilan, R. (2007). "Manipulating Lignin Biosynthesis to Improve Populus as a Bio-Energy Feedstock" (PDF). Institute of Forest Biotechnology, Genetically Engineered Forest Trees - Identifying Priorities for Ecological Risk Assessment: 55–61. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014. Some scientists believe ... that reducing lignin content may lead to increases in cellulose content. But critics argue that reductions in lignin will compromise the structural integrity of the plant and make it more susceptible to pathogens, and diseases. (p. 59)
  25. ↑ Hall, C. (2007). "GM technology in forestry: lessons from the GM food 'debate'" . International Journal of Biotechnology. 9 (5) 14270: 436–447. doi:10.1504/ijbt.2007.014270. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-25. Altering the quality or quantity of lignin may have significant impacts on the survival abilities of the tree, such as impairing its pest or disease resistance and necessitating the use of additional pesticides.
  26. ↑ Wilkerson, C. G.; Mansfield, S. D.; Lu, F.; Withers, S.; Park, J.-Y.; Karlen, S. D.; Gonzales-Vigil, E.; Padmakshan, D.; Unda, F.; Rencoret, J.; Ralph, J. (2014). "Monolignol Ferulate Transferase Introduces Chemically Labile Linkages into the Lignin Backbone". Science. 344 (6179): 90–93. Bibcode:2014Sci...344...90W. doi:10.1126/science.1250161. hdl: 10261/95743 . PMID   24700858. S2CID   25429319.
  27. ↑ "Genetically Modified Trees Could Clean Up Paper Industry". Archived from the original on 2019-08-27. Retrieved 2018-08-09.
  28. ↑ Mathews, J.H.; Campbell, M.M. (2000). "The advantages and disadvantages of the application of genetic engineering to forest trees: a discussion". Forestry. 73 (4): 371–380. doi: 10.1093/forestry/73.4.371 . As Pullman et al.(1998) pointed out, modification of trees' adaptation to environmental stresses will enable foresters to grow more desirable commercial tree species on a broader range of soil types and planting sites. (p.375)
  29. ↑ Harfouche, A.; et al. (2011). "Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production". Trends in Biotechnology. 29 (1): 9–17. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003. PMID   20970211. ArborGen is a joint venture between International Paper Company (USA) MeadWestvaco (USA) and Rubicon Limited (New Zealand) (p.13)
  30. ↑ Institute of Forest Biotechnology (2007). "Genetically Engineered Forest Trees - Identifying Priorities for Ecological Risk Assessment - Summary of a Multistakeholder Workshop" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014. private company ArborGen is reportedly focusing on the development of three GE varieties: fast-growing loblolly pine for Southern pine plantations, low-lignin eucalyptus for use in South America, and cold-hardy eucalyptus for the Southern U.S. (p. ix)
  31. ↑ "Deliberate release of genetically modified trees An abundance of poplars". GMO Safety. 1 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014. A gene has been introduced into the trees that makes them less sensitive to cold. Until now cultivation of eucalyptus in the US was only possible on the southern tip of Florida; frost tolerance could mean that cultivation would be possible in other parts of the USA.
  32. ↑ Knäbel M, Friend AP, Palmer JW, Diack R, Wiedow C, Alspach P, Deng C, Gardiner SE, Tustin DS, Schaffer R, Foster T, Chagné D (2015). "Genetic control of pear rootstock-induced dwarfing and precocity is linked to a chromosomal region syntenic to the apple Dw1 loci". BMC Plant Biol. 15 (1) 230. Bibcode:2015BMCPB..15..230K. doi: 10.1186/s12870-015-0620-4 . PMC   4580296 . PMID   26394845.
  33. ↑ Foster TM, McAtee PA, Waite CN, Boldingh HL, McGhie TK (2017). "Apple dwarfing rootstocks exhibit an imbalance in carbohydrate allocation and reduced cell growth and metabolism". Hortic Res. 4 (1) 17009. Bibcode:2017HorR....417009F. doi:10.1038/hortres.2017.9. PMC   5381684 . PMID   28435686.
  34. 1 2 3 4 Pinheiro, Ana Cristina; dos Santos, Anselmo Azevedo; Avisar, Dror; Gonsalves, José Mateus; Galan, Maria Paula; Abramson, Miron; Barimboim, Noga; Abrahão, Othon; Graça, Rodrigo Neves; Drezza, Thaís Regina; Silva, William (2023). "Five-years post commercial approval monitoring of eucalyptus H421". Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 11 1257576. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1257576 . ISSN   2296-4185. PMC   10580069 . PMID   37854879.
  35. ↑ Overbeek W. (2012). "An overview of industrial tree plantation conflicts in the global South. Conflicts, trends, and resistance struggles" (PDF). EJOLT. 3: 84. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-17.
  36. ↑ Carpita, Nicholas C.; Gibeaut, David M. (1993). "Structural models of primary cell walls in flowering plants: consistency of molecular structure with the physical properties of the walls during growth". The Plant Journal. 3 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.1993.tb00007.x. ISSN   0960-7412. PMID   8401598.
  37. ↑ Hayashi, Takahisa, ed. (2006). The science and lore of the plant cell wall: biosynthesis, structure and function. Boca Raton, Fla: Brown Walker Press. ISBN   978-1-58112-445-3.
  38. ↑ Shani, Ziv; Dekel, Mara; Tsabary, Galit; Goren, Raphael; Shoseyov, Oded (2004). "Growth enhancement of transgenic poplar plants by overexpression of Arabidopsis thaliana endo-1,4–β-glucanase (cel1)". Molecular Breeding. 14 (3): 321–330. Bibcode:2004MBree..14..321S. doi:10.1023/B:MOLB.0000049213.15952.8a. ISSN   1380-3743.
  39. ↑ Park, Yong Woo; Baba, Kei'ichi; Furuta, Yuzo; Iida, Ikuho; Sameshima, Kazuhiko; Arai, Motoh; Hayashi, Takahisa (2004). "Enhancement of growth and cellulose accumulation by overexpression of xyloglucanase in poplar". FEBS Letters. 564 (1–2): 183–187. Bibcode:2004FEBSL.564..183P. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(04)00346-1. ISSN   0014-5793. PMID   15094064.
  40. ↑ Vidal, J. (15 November 2012). "The GM tree plantations bred to satisfy the world's energy needs - Israeli biotech firm says its modified eucalyptus trees can displace the fossil fuel industry". Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
  41. ↑ "Gene manipulation boosts tree growth rate and size". 24 April 2015. Archived from the original on 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2018-08-09.
  42. ↑ "Into the Wildwood". The Economist. 4 May 2013. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  43. ↑ Harfouche, A. (2011). "Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production". Trends in Biotechnology. 29 (1): 13. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003. PMID   20970211.
  44. ↑ Powell, William (March 2014) "the American Chestnut's Genetic Rebirth", Scientific American, Volume 310, Number 3, Page 52
  45. 1 2 Avisar, Dror; Manoeli, Alexandre; Dos Santos, Anselmo Azevedo; Porto, Antonio Carlos Da Mota; Rocha, Carolina Da Silva; Zauza, Edival; Gonzalez, Esteban R.; Soliman, Everton; Gonsalves, José Mateus Wisniewski; Bombonato, Lorena; Galan, Maria P.; Domingues, Maurício M.; Candelaria, Murici Carlos; Mafia, Reginaldo; Graça, Rodrigo Neves (2024). "Genetically engineered eucalyptus expressing pesticidal proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis for insect resistance: a risk assessment evaluation perspective". Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 12 1322985. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1322985 . ISSN   2296-4185. PMC   10982518 . PMID   38562667.
  46. ↑ Asiegbu, Fred O.; Kovalchuk, Andriy (2023). Forest microbiology. London: Academic press, an imprint of Elsevier. ISBN   978-0-443-18695-0.
  47. ↑ Zanuncio, Antonio José Vinha; Carvalho, Amélia Guimarães; de Camargo, Mariane Bueno; Milagres, Flaviana Reis; de Castro, Vinícius Resende; Colodette, Jorge Luiz; Vidaurre, Graziela Baptista; Zanuncio, José Cola (2020). "Defoliation by insects reduces the wood quality and cellulosic pulp production". Holzforschung. 74 (5): 489–495. doi:10.1515/hf-2019-0134. ISSN   1437-434X.
  48. ↑ "PARECER TÉCNICO Nº 180/2023/SEI-CTNBio". Comissão Técnica Nacional de Biossegurança (in Brazilian Portuguese). April 26, 2023.
  49. ↑ "PARECER TÉCNICO Nº 1638/2021/SEI-CTNBio". Comissão Técnica Nacional de Biossegurança (in Brazilian Portuguese). December 17, 2021.
  50. 1 2 Mota Porto, Antonio Carlos; Wisniewski Gonsalves, José Mateus; Vieira, Paula Aparecida; Perek, Matheus; da Costa Lima, Diego; Nagayschi, Marcio; Drezza, Thais Regina; Pinheiro, Ana Cristina; de Mello, Eduardo Jose; Avisar, Dror; Neves Graca, Rodrigo (2024). "Characterization of glyphosate-tolerant genetically modified eucalyptus". GM Crops & Food. 15 (1): 361–373. Bibcode:2024GMCFB..15..361M. doi:10.1080/21645698.2024.2429200. ISSN   2164-5698. PMC   11591478 . PMID   39582156.
  51. ↑ "Aromatic amino acid biosynthesis, The shikimate pathway – synthesis of chorismate". Metabolic Plant Physiology Lecture notes. Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. October 1, 2009. Archived from the original on 2007-12-19. Retrieved 2025-09-27.
  52. ↑ Steinrücken, H.C.; Amrhein, N. (1980). "The herbicide glyphosate is a potent inhibitor of 5-enolpyruvylshikimic acid-3-phosphate synthase". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 94 (4): 1207–1212. Bibcode:1980BBRC...94.1207S. doi:10.1016/0006-291X(80)90547-1. PMID   7396959.
  53. ↑ Funke, Todd; Han, Huijong; Healy-Fried, Martha L.; Fischer, Markus; Schönbrunn, Ernst (2006). "Molecular basis for the herbicide resistance of Roundup Ready crops". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (35): 13010–13015. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10313010F. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0603638103 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   1559744 . PMID   16916934.
  54. ↑ Lang, Chris (2004). "China: Genetically modified madness". The World Rainforest Movement. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2014. Two years ago, China's State Forestry Administration approved genetically modified (GM) poplar trees for commercial planting.
  55. ↑ Then, C.; Hamberger, S. (2010). "Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"?" (PDF). Testbiotech.de . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-29.
  56. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2005). "Will Developing Countries be the Early Adopters of Genetically Engineered Forests? Resources for the Future" (PDF). AgBioForum. 8 (4): 205–211. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2014. the engineered gene has probably spread beyond the area of the original plantings (p.206)
  57. ↑ Carman, N. (2006). "Ecological and Social Impacts of Fast Growing Timber Plantations and Genetically Engineered Trees" (PDF). Dogwood Alliance. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-20. Retrieved 2014-01-31. The Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science has reported that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is already occurring. (p.4)
  58. ↑ Then, C.; Hamberger, S. (2010). "Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"?" (PDF). Testbiotech. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-29. Bt poplars are grown alongside non-transgenic trees, possibly delaying the emergence of resistances. If this is the case, the transgenic poplars will have higher fitness in comparison to the other trees, thus conceivably fostering their invasiveness in the mid or even long-term. (p.16)
  59. ↑ "About". www.livingcarbon.com. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  60. 1 2 Tao, Yumin; Chiu, Li-Wei; Hoyle, Jacob W.; Dewhirst, Rebecca A.; Richey, Christian; Rasmussen, Karli; Du, Jessica; Mellor, Patrick; Kuiper, Julie; Tucker, Dominick; Crites, Alex; Orr, Gary A.; Heckert, Matthew J.; Godinez-Vidal, Damaris; Orozco-Cardenas, Martha L. (2023). "Enhanced Photosynthetic Efficiency for Increased Carbon Assimilation and Woody Biomass Production in Engineered Hybrid Poplar". Forests. 14 (4): 827. Bibcode:2023Fore...14..827T. doi: 10.3390/f14040827 . ISSN   1999-4907.
  61. ↑ "Inside the quest to engineer climate-saving "super trees"". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  62. ↑ Corbyn, Zoë (2023-10-15). "Could superpowered plants be the heroes of the climate crisis?". The Observer. ISSN   0029-7712 . Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  63. ↑ Portala, Juliette (2023-07-27). "Genetically engineered trees stoke climate hope — and environmental fears". Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  64. ↑ Fialka, John. "Start-up Hopes 'Super' Poplar Trees Will Suck Up More CO2". Scientific American. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  65. ↑ Decoding genetic technologies. 2023-02-27. Retrieved 2024-12-13– via edition.cnn.com.
  66. ↑ "Eucalyptus(Eucalyptus sp.) GM Events". GM Approval Database, ISAAA. Retrieved 2025-09-27.
  67. ↑ "PARECER TÉCNICO Nº 291/2024/SEI-CTNBio". Comissão Técnica Nacional de Biossegurança (in Brazilian Portuguese). March 22, 2024.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.