Genetically modified tree

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Technician checks on genetically modified peach and apple "orchards". Each dish holds experimental trees grown from lab-cultured cells to which researchers have given new genes. Source: USDA. Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg
Technician checks on genetically modified peach and apple "orchards". Each dish holds experimental trees grown from lab-cultured cells to which researchers have given new genes. Source: USDA.

A genetically modified tree (GMt, GM tree, genetically engineered tree, GE tree or transgenic tree) is a tree whose DNA has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a novel trait to the plant which does not occur naturally within the species. Examples include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, and herbicide tolerance, or the alteration of lignin levels in order to reduce pulping costs.

Contents

Genetically modified forest trees are not yet approved ("deregulated") for commercial use with the exception of insect-resistant poplar trees in China [1] [2] and one case of GM Eucalyptus in Brazil. [3] Several genetically modified forest tree species are undergoing field trials for deregulation, and much of the research is being carried out by the pulp and paper industry, primarily with the intention of increasing the productivity of existing tree stock. [4] Certain genetically modified orchard tree species have been deregulated for commercial use in the United States including the papaya and plum. [5] The development, testing and use of GM trees remains at an early stage in comparison to GM crops. [6]

Research

Research into genetically modified trees has been ongoing since 1988. [7] Concerns surrounding the biosafety implications of releasing genetically modified trees into the wild have held back regulatory approval of GM forest trees. This concern is exemplified in the Convention on Biological Diversity's stance:

The Conference of the Parties, Recognising the uncertainties related to the potential environmental and socio-economic impacts, including long term and trans-boundary impacts, of genetically modified trees on global forest biological diversity, as well as on the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities, and given the absence of reliable data and of capacity in some countries to undertake risk assessments and to evaluate those potential impacts, recommends parties to take a

precautionary approach when addressing the issue of genetically modified trees. [8]

A precondition for further commercialization of GM forest trees is likely to be their complete sterility. [6] [9] Plantation trees remain phenotypically similar to their wild cousins in that most are the product of no more than three generations of artificial selection, therefore, the risk of transgene escape by pollination with compatible wild species is high. [10] One of the most credible science-based concerns with GM trees is their potential for wide dispersal of seed and pollen. [11] The fact that pine pollen travels long distances is well established, moving up to 3,000 kilometers from its source. [12] Additionally, many tree species reproduce for a long time before being harvested. [13] In combination these factors have led some to believe that GM trees are worthy of special environmental considerations over GM crops. [14] Ensuring sterility for GM trees has proven elusive, but efforts are being made. [15] While tree geneticist Steve Strauss predicted that complete containment might be possible by 2020, many questions remain. [16]

Proposed uses

GM trees under experimental development have been modified with traits intended to provide benefit to industry, foresters or consumers. Due to high regulatory and research costs, the majority of genetically modified trees in silviculture consist of plantation trees, such as eucalyptus, poplar, and pine.

Lignin alteration

Several companies and organizations (including ArborGen, [17] GLBRC, [18] ...) in the pulp and paper industry are interested in utilizing GM technology to alter the lignin content of plantation trees (particularly eucalyptus and poplar trees [19] ). It is estimated that reducing lignin in plantation trees by genetic modification could reduce pulping costs by up to $15 per cubic metre. [20] Lignin removal from wood fibres conventionally relies on costly and environmentally hazardous chemicals. [21] By developing low-lignin GM trees it is hoped that pulping and bleaching processes will require fewer inputs, [22] therefore, mills supplied by low-lignin GM trees may have a reduced impact on their surrounding ecosystems and communities. [23] However, it is argued that reductions in lignin may compromise the structural integrity of the plant, thereby making it more susceptible to wind, snow, pathogens and disease, [24] which could necessitate pesticide use exceeding that on traditional plantations. [25] This has proven correct, and an alternative approach followed by the University of Columbia was developed. This approach was to introduce chemically labile linkages instead (by inserting a gene from the plant Angelica sinensis ), which allows the lignin to break down much more easy. [26] Due to this new approach, the lignin from the trees not only easily breaks apart when treated with a mild base at temperatures of 100 degrees C, but the trees also maintained their growth potential and strength. [27]

Frost tolerance

Genetic modification can allow trees to cope with abiotic stresses such that their geographic range is broadened. [28] Freeze-tolerant GM eucalyptus trees for use in southern US plantations are currently being tested in open air sites with such an objective in mind. ArborGen, a tree biotechnology company and joint venture of pulp and paper firms Rubicon (New Zealand), MeadWestvaco (US) and International Paper (US) [29] is leading this research. [30] Until now the cultivation of eucalyptus has only been possible on the southern tip of Florida, freeze-tolerance would substantially extend the cultivation range northwards. [31]

Reduced vigour

Orchard trees require a rootstock with reduced vigour to allow them to remain small. Genetic modification could allow the elimination of the rootstock, by making the tree less vigorous, hence reducing its height when fully mature. Research is being done into which genes are responsible for the vigour in orchard trees (such as apples, pears, ...). [32] [33]

Accelerated growth

In Brazil, field trials of fast growing GM eucalyptus are currently underway, they were set to conclude in 2015–2016 with commercialization to result. [34] FuturaGene, a biotechnology company owned by Suzano, a Brazilian pulp and paper company, has been leading this research. Stanley Hirsch, chief executive of FuturaGene has stated: "Our trees grow faster and thicker. We are ahead of everyone. We have shown we can increase the yields and growth rates of trees more than anything grown by traditional breeding." [35] The company is looking to reduce harvest cycles from 7 to 5.5 years with 20-30% more mass than conventional eucalyptus. [35] There is concern that such objectives may further exacerbate the negative impacts of plantation forestry. Increased water and soil nutrient demand from faster growing species may lead to irrecoverable losses in site productivity and further impinge upon neighbouring communities and ecosystems. [36] [37] [38] Researchers at the University of Manchester's Faculty of Life Sciences modified two genes in poplar trees, called PXY and CLE, which are responsible for the rate of cell division in tree trunks. As a result, the trees are growing twice as fast as normal, and also end up being taller, wider and with more leaves. [39]

Disease resistance

Ecologically motivated research into genetic modification is underway. There are ongoing schemes that aim to foster disease resistance in trees such as the American chestnut [40] (see Chestnut blight) and the English elm [41] (see Dutch elm disease) for the purpose of their reintroduction to the wild. Specific diseases have reduced the populations of these emblematic species to the extent that they are mostly lost in the wild. Genetic modification is being pursued concurrently with traditional breeding techniques in an attempt to endow these species with disease resistance. [42]

Current uses

Poplars in China

In 2002 China's State Forestry Administration approved GM poplar trees for commercial use. [43] Subsequently, 1.4 million Bt (insecticide) producing GM poplars were planted in China. They were planted both for their wood and as part of China's 'Green Wall' project, which aims to impede desertification. [44] Reports indicate that the GM poplars have spread beyond the area of original planting [45] and that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is occurring. [46] There is concern with these developments, particularly because the pesticide producing trait may impart a positive selective advantage on the poplar, allowing it a high level of invasiveness. [47]

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified maize</span> Genetically modified crop

Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified organism</span> Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering methods

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), from animals to plants and microorganisms. Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species, and even across kingdoms. New genes can be introduced, or endogenous genes can be enhanced, altered, or knocked out.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic engineering</span> Manipulation of an organisms genome

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by Paul Berg in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with the lambda virus. As well as inserting genes, the process can be used to remove, or "knock out", genes. The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.

Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulp (paper)</span> Fibrous material used notably in papermaking

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food</span> Foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA

Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using various methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified crops</span> Plants used in agriculture

Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food controversies</span> Controversies over GMO food

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified plant</span> Plants with human-introduced genes from other organisms

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic pollution</span> Problematic gene flow ⇨ wild populations

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified animal</span> Animal that has been genetically modified

Genetically modified animals are animals that have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes including producing drugs, enhancing yields, increasing resistance to disease, etc. The vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage while the number close to entering the market remains small.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified fish</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified tomato</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regulation of genetic engineering</span> Overview of the regulation of genetic engineering

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of genetic engineering</span>

Genetic engineering is the science of manipulating genetic material of an organism. The first artificial genetic modification accomplished using biotechnology was transgenesis, the process of transferring genes from one organism to another, first accomplished by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen in 1973. It was the result of a series of advancements in techniques that allowed the direct modification of the genome. Important advances included the discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases, the ability to design plasmids and technologies like polymerase chain reaction and sequencing. Transformation of the DNA into a host organism was accomplished with the invention of biolistics, Agrobacterium-mediated recombination and microinjection. The first genetically modified animal was a mouse created in 1974 by Rudolf Jaenisch. In 1976 the technology was commercialised, with the advent of genetically modified bacteria that produced somatostatin, followed by insulin in 1978. In 1983 an antibiotic resistant gene was inserted into tobacco, leading to the first genetically engineered plant. Advances followed that allowed scientists to manipulate and add genes to a variety of different organisms and induce a range of different effects. Plants were first commercialized with virus resistant tobacco released in China in 1992. The first genetically modified food was the Flavr Savr tomato marketed in 1994. By 2010, 29 countries had planted commercialized biotech crops. In 2000 a paper published in Science introduced golden rice, the first food developed with increased nutrient value.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DMH-11 Mustard</span> Genetically modified variety of mustard plant

Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11, otherwise known as DMH - 11, is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species Brassica juncea. It was developed by Professor Deepak Pental from the University of Delhi, with the aim of reducing India's demand for edible oil imports. DMH - 11 was created through transgenic technology, primarily involving the Bar, Barnase and Barstar gene system. The Barnase gene confers male sterility, while the Barstar gene restores DMH - 11's ability to produce fertile seeds. The insertion of the third gene Bar, enables DMH - 11 to produce phosphinothricin-N- acetyl-transferase, the enzyme responsible for Glufosinate resistance. This hybrid mustard variety has come under intense public scrutiny, mainly due to concerns regarding DMH - 11's potential to adversely affect the environment as well as consumer health. DMH - 11 was found not to pose any food allergy risks, and has demonstrated increased yields over existing mustard varieties. Conflicting details and results regarding the field trials and safety evaluations conducted on DMH - 11 have delayed its approval for commercial cropping.

The Darling 58 is a genetically engineered American chestnut tree. The tree was created by American Chestnut Research & Restoration Program at the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry in collaboration with The American Chestnut Foundation to restore the American chestnut to the forests of North America. These Darling-58 trees are attacked by chestnut blight, but survive. Darling-58 trees survive to reach maturity, produce chestnuts, and multiply to restore the American chestnut tree to the forests of North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tree plantation</span> Tree farming

A tree plantation, forest plantation, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms.

References

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  17. ↑ Genetically modified low-lignin eucalyptus yields twice the sugar
  18. ↑ Poplars “designed for deconstruction” a major boon to biofuels
  19. ↑ Researchers design trees that make it easier to produce pulp
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  29. ↑ Harfouche, A.; et al. (2011). "Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production". Trends in Biotechnology. 29 (1): 9–17. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003. PMID   20970211. ArborGen is a joint venture between International Paper Company (USA) MeadWestvaco (USA) and Rubicon Limited (New Zealand) (p.13)
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  32. ↑ Knäbel M, Friend AP, Palmer JW, Diack R, Wiedow C, Alspach P, Deng C, Gardiner SE, Tustin DS, Schaffer R, Foster T, Chagné D (2015). "Genetic control of pear rootstock-induced dwarfing and precocity is linked to a chromosomal region syntenic to the apple Dw1 loci". BMC Plant Biol. 15: 230. doi:10.1186/s12870-015-0620-4. PMC   4580296 . PMID   26394845.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  34. ↑ Overbeek W. (2012). "An overview of industrial tree plantation conflicts in the global South. Conflicts, trends, and resistance struggles" (PDF). EJOLT. 3: 84.
  35. 1 2 Vidal, J. (November 15, 2012). "The GM tree plantations bred to satisfy the world's energy needs - Israeli biotech firm says its modified eucalyptus trees can displace the fossil fuel industry". Guardian.
  36. ↑ Gerber, J.F. (2011). "Conflicts over industrial tree plantations in the South: Who, how and why?". Global Environmental Change. 21: 165–176. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.09.005. Fast-wood plantations tend to destabilize water cycles provoking reduced water flow throughout the year, the disappearance of streams during the dry season, and damages to other (agro-)ecosystems (p.167)
  37. ↑ Owusu, R.A. (1999). "GM technology in the forest sector - A scoping study for WWF" (PDF). WWF. Biotechnology may inadvertently become yet another driver for inappropriate plantation development. Increased soil nutrient and water demand of fast growing species on short rotations could lead to irrecoverable loss of site productivity. (p.5)
  38. ↑ Nottingham, S. (2002). Genescapes - The Ecology of Genetic Engineering. Zed Books. ISBN   9781842770375. fast-growing transgenic trees will make additional demands on soil nutrients and water, with consequences for the long-term fertility of soils. Substantial fertilizer inputs might be necessary to maintain high yields
  39. ↑ Gene manipulation boosts tree growth rate and size
  40. ↑ "Into the Wildwood". The Economist. May 4, 2013.
  41. ↑ Harfouche, A. (2011). "Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production". Trends in Biotechnology. 29 (1): 13. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003. PMID   20970211.
  42. ↑ Powell, William (March 2014) "the American Chestnut's Genetic Rebirth", Scientific American, Volume 310, Number 3, Page 52
  43. ↑ Lang, Chris (2004). "China: Genetically modified madness". The World Rainforest Movement. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2014. Two years ago, China's State Forestry Administration approved genetically modified (GM) poplar trees for commercial planting.
  44. ↑ Then, C.; Hamberger, S. (2010). "Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"?" (PDF). Testbiotech.de .
  45. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2005). "Will Developing Countries be the Early Adopters of Genetically Engineered Forests? Resources for the Future" (PDF). AgBioForum. 8 (4): 205–211. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-13. Retrieved 2014-01-16. the engineered gene has probably spread beyond the area of the original plantings (p.206)
  46. ↑ Carman, N. (2006). "Ecological and Social Impacts of Fast Growing Timber Plantations and Genetically Engineered Trees" (PDF). Dogwood Alliance. The Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science has reported that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is already occurring. (p.4)
  47. ↑ Then, C.; Hamberger, S. (2010). "Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"?" (PDF). Testbiotech. Bt poplars are grown alongside non-transgenic trees, possibly delaying the emergence of resistances. If this is the case, the transgenic poplars will have higher fitness in comparison to the other trees, thus conceivably fostering their invasiveness in the mid or even long-term. (p.16)
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