Genetically modified tree

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Technician checks on genetically modified peach and apple "orchards". Each dish holds experimental trees grown from lab-cultured cells to which researchers have given new genes. Source: USDA. Apfe-auf-Naehrboden.jpg
Technician checks on genetically modified peach and apple "orchards". Each dish holds experimental trees grown from lab-cultured cells to which researchers have given new genes. Source: USDA.

A genetically modified tree (GMt, GM tree, genetically engineered tree, GE tree or transgenic tree) is a tree whose DNA has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a novel trait to the plant which does not occur naturally within the species. Examples include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, and herbicide tolerance, or the alteration of lignin levels in order to reduce pulping costs.

Contents

Genetically modified forest trees are not yet approved ("deregulated") for commercial use with the exception of insect-resistant poplar trees in China [1] [2] and one case of GM Eucalyptus in Brazil. [3] Several genetically modified forest tree species are undergoing field trials for deregulation, and much of the research is being carried out by the pulp and paper industry, primarily with the intention of increasing the productivity of existing tree stock. [4] Certain genetically modified orchard tree species have been deregulated for commercial use in the United States including the papaya and plum. [5] The development, testing and use of GM trees remains at an early stage in comparison to GM crops. [6]

Research

Research into genetically modified trees has been ongoing since 1988. [7] Concerns surrounding the biosafety implications of releasing genetically modified trees into the wild have held back regulatory approval of GM forest trees. This concern is exemplified in the Convention on Biological Diversity's stance:

The Conference of the Parties, Recognising the uncertainties related to the potential environmental and socio-economic impacts, including long term and trans-boundary impacts, of genetically modified trees on global forest biological diversity, as well as on the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities, and given the absence of reliable data and of capacity in some countries to undertake risk assessments and to evaluate those potential impacts, recommends parties to take a precautionary approach when addressing the issue of genetically modified trees. [8]

A precondition for further commercialization of GM forest trees is likely to be their complete sterility. [6] [9] Plantation trees remain phenotypically similar to their wild cousins in that most are the product of no more than three generations of artificial selection, therefore, the risk of transgene escape by pollination with compatible wild species is high. [10] One of the most credible science-based concerns with GM trees is their potential for wide dispersal of seed and pollen. [11] The fact that pine pollen travels long distances is well established, moving up to 3,000 kilometers from its source. [12] Additionally, many tree species reproduce for a long time before being harvested. [13] In combination these factors have led some to believe that GM trees are worthy of special environmental considerations over GM crops. [14] Ensuring sterility for GM trees has proven elusive, but efforts are being made. [15] While tree geneticist Steve Strauss predicted that complete containment might be possible by 2020, many questions remain. [16]

Proposed uses

GM trees under experimental development have been modified with traits intended to provide benefit to industry, foresters or consumers. Due to high regulatory and research costs, the majority of genetically modified trees in silviculture consist of plantation trees, such as eucalyptus, poplar, and pine.

Lignin alteration

Several companies and organizations (including ArborGen, [17] GLBRC, [18] ...) in the pulp and paper industry are interested in utilizing GM technology to alter the lignin content of plantation trees (particularly eucalyptus and poplar trees [19] ). It is estimated that reducing lignin in plantation trees by genetic modification could reduce pulping costs by up to $15 per cubic metre. [20] Lignin removal from wood fibres conventionally relies on costly and environmentally hazardous chemicals. [21] By developing low-lignin GM trees it is hoped that pulping and bleaching processes will require fewer inputs, [22] therefore, mills supplied by low-lignin GM trees may have a reduced impact on their surrounding ecosystems and communities. [23] However, it is argued that reductions in lignin may compromise the structural integrity of the plant, thereby making it more susceptible to wind, snow, pathogens and disease, [24] which could necessitate pesticide use exceeding that on traditional plantations. [25] This has proven correct, and an alternative approach followed by the University of Columbia was developed. This approach was to introduce chemically labile linkages instead (by inserting a gene from the plant Angelica sinensis ), which allows the lignin to break down much more easy. [26] Due to this new approach, the lignin from the trees not only easily breaks apart when treated with a mild base at temperatures of 100 degrees C, but the trees also maintained their growth potential and strength. [27]

Frost tolerance

Genetic modification can allow trees to cope with abiotic stresses such that their geographic range is broadened. [28] Freeze-tolerant GM eucalyptus trees for use in southern US plantations are currently being tested in open air sites with such an objective in mind. ArborGen, a tree biotechnology company and joint venture of pulp and paper firms Rubicon (New Zealand), MeadWestvaco (US) and International Paper (US) [29] is leading this research. [30] Until now the cultivation of eucalyptus has only been possible on the southern tip of Florida, freeze-tolerance would substantially extend the cultivation range northwards. [31]

Reduced vigour

Orchard trees require a rootstock with reduced vigour to allow them to remain small. Genetic modification could allow the elimination of the rootstock, by making the tree less vigorous, hence reducing its height when fully mature. Research is being done into which genes are responsible for the vigour in orchard trees (such as apples, pears, ...). [32] [33]

Accelerated growth

In Brazil, field trials of fast growing GM eucalyptus are currently underway, they were set to conclude in 2015–2016 with commercialization to result. [34] FuturaGene, a biotechnology company owned by Suzano, a Brazilian pulp and paper company, has been leading this research. Stanley Hirsch, chief executive of FuturaGene has stated: "Our trees grow faster and thicker. We are ahead of everyone. We have shown we can increase the yields and growth rates of trees more than anything grown by traditional breeding." [35] The company is looking to reduce harvest cycles from 7 to 5.5 years with 20-30% more mass than conventional eucalyptus. [35] There is concern that such objectives may further exacerbate the negative impacts of plantation forestry. Increased water and soil nutrient demand from faster growing species may lead to irrecoverable losses in site productivity and further impinge upon neighbouring communities and ecosystems. [36] [37] [38] Researchers at the University of Manchester's Faculty of Life Sciences modified two genes in poplar trees, called PXY and CLE, which are responsible for the rate of cell division in tree trunks. As a result, the trees are growing twice as fast as normal, and also end up being taller, wider and with more leaves. [39]

Disease resistance

Ecologically motivated research into genetic modification is underway. There are ongoing schemes that aim to foster disease resistance in trees such as the American chestnut [40] (see Chestnut blight) and the English elm [41] (see Dutch elm disease) for the purpose of their reintroduction to the wild. Specific diseases have reduced the populations of these emblematic species to the extent that they are mostly lost in the wild. Genetic modification is being pursued concurrently with traditional breeding techniques in an attempt to endow these species with disease resistance. [42]

Current uses

Poplars in China

In 2002 China's State Forestry Administration approved GM poplar trees for commercial use. [43] Subsequently, 1.4 million Bt (insecticide) producing GM poplars were planted in China. They were planted both for their wood and as part of China's 'Green Wall' project, which aims to impede desertification. [44] Reports indicate that the GM poplars have spread beyond the area of original planting [45] and that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is occurring. [46] There is concern with these developments, particularly because the pesticide producing trait may impart a positive selective advantage on the poplar, allowing it a high level of invasiveness. [47]

Living Carbon in the USA

Living Carbon, an American biotechnology company founded in 2019, has developed genetically engineered hybrid poplar trees aimed at enhancing carbon sequestration. These trees have been modified to improve photosynthetic efficiency, enabling them to capture more carbon dioxide (CO₂) and produce greater woody biomass than conventional trees. Living Carbon’s mission is to leverage technology to combat climate change while promoting biodiversity and restoring degraded ecosystems. [48] [49]

Development and Deployment

Living Carbon’s genetically modified trees were first planted in a bottomland forest in Georgia, USA, in February 2023. Early field trials indicated that these trees achieved a 53% increase in above-ground biomass compared to control groups, enabling them to absorb 27% more carbon. [49] The company generates revenue by selling carbon credits derived from these forests to individuals and businesses seeking to offset greenhouse gas emissions. [50]

Benefits and Potential

Supporters of Living Carbon’s approach highlight its potential to contribute to global climate solutions, particularly if deployed on a large scale. The modified trees are targeted for use in afforestation and reforestation projects on degraded land, where they can aid in carbon capture and ecosystem restoration without displacing native species. These projects also aim to enhance biodiversity while addressing environmental degradation. [51]

Controversies and Challenges

The deployment of genetically modified trees has been met with skepticism. Critics, including some forestry and genetic experts, question whether the trees will meet carbon absorption expectations outside controlled laboratory settings. Concerns have also been raised about the potential ecological risks, such as the unintended spread of genetically modified traits to wild tree populations, which could disrupt native ecosystems. [52] [53] Maddie Hall, co-founder of Living Carbon, has addressed these concerns, emphasizing the urgency of climate action and the limitations of waiting for natural evolutionary processes to improve tree resilience. However, experts note that achieving success in lab or greenhouse trials does not guarantee similar outcomes in complex, natural environments. [54]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biotechnology</span> Use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products

Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified maize</span> Genetically modified crop

Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified organism</span> Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering methods

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), including animals, plants, and microorganisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetic engineering</span> Manipulation of an organisms genome

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulp (paper)</span> Fibrous material used notably in papermaking

Pulp is a fibrous lignocellulosic material prepared by chemically, semi-chemically or mechanically producing cellulosic fibers from wood, fiber crops, waste paper, or rags. Mixed with water and other chemicals or plant-based additives, pulp is the major raw material used in papermaking and the industrial production of other paper products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food</span> Foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA

Genetically modified foods, also known as genetically engineered foods, or bioengineered foods are foods produced from organisms that have had changes introduced into their DNA using various methods of genetic engineering. Genetic engineering techniques allow for the introduction of new traits as well as greater control over traits when compared to previous methods, such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pulpwood</span> Timber intended for processing into wood pulp for paper production

Pulpwood can be defined as timber that is ground and processed into a fibrous pulp. It is a versatile natural resource commonly used for paper-making but also made into low-grade wood and used for chips, energy, pellets, and engineered products.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified crops</span> Plants used in agriculture

Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.

Energy forestry is a form of forestry in which a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub is grown specifically to provide biomass or biofuel for heating or power generation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lignocellulosic biomass</span> Plant dry matter

Lignocellulose refers to plant dry matter (biomass), so called lignocellulosic biomass. It is the most abundantly available raw material on the Earth for the production of biofuels. It is composed of two kinds of carbohydrate polymers, cellulose and hemicellulose, and an aromatic-rich polymer called lignin. Any biomass rich in cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are commonly referred to as lignocellulosic biomass. Each component has a distinct chemical behavior. Being a composite of three very different components makes the processing of lignocellulose challenging. The evolved resistance to degradation or even separation is referred to as recalcitrance. Overcoming this recalcitrance to produce useful, high value products requires a combination of heat, chemicals, enzymes, and microorganisms. These carbohydrate-containing polymers contain different sugar monomers and they are covalently bound to lignin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy crop</span> Crops grown solely for energy production by combustion

Energy crops are low-cost and low-maintenance crops grown solely for renewable bioenergy production. The crops are processed into solid, liquid or gaseous fuels, such as pellets, bioethanol or biogas. The fuels are burned to generate electrical power or heat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified food controversies</span>

Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals.

Lignin-modifying enzymes (LMEs) are various types of enzymes produced by fungi and bacteria that catalyze the breakdown of lignin, a biopolymer commonly found in the cell walls of plants. The terms ligninases and lignases are older names for the same class, but the name "lignin-modifying enzymes" is now preferred, given that these enzymes are not hydrolytic but rather oxidative by their enzymatic mechanisms. LMEs include peroxidases, such as lignin peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, and many phenoloxidases of the laccase type.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genetically modified plant</span> Plants with human-introduced genes from other organisms

Genetically modified plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colours in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. Many plant cells are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and then under the right conditions form a new plant. This ability is most often taken advantage by genetic engineers through selecting cells that can successfully be transformed into an adult plant which can then be grown into multiple new plants containing transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regulation of genetic engineering</span>

The regulation of genetic engineering varies widely by country. Countries such as the United States, Canada, Lebanon and Egypt use substantial equivalence as the starting point when assessing safety, while many countries such as those in the European Union, Brazil and China authorize GMO cultivation on a case-by-case basis. Many countries allow the import of GM food with authorization, but either do not allow its cultivation or have provisions for cultivation, but no GM products are yet produced. Most countries that do not allow for GMO cultivation do permit research. Most (85%) of the world's GMO crops are grown in the Americas. One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries. Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level or voluntary. A study investigating voluntary labeling in South Africa found that 31% of products labeled as GMO-free had a GM content above 1.0%. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary, while in Europe all food or feed which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Farm Forestry Toolbox</span> Collection of computer programs

The Farm Forestry Toolbox is a collection of computer programs, referred to as 'Tools', intended to be used by farm forest owners and managers to aid decision making. The Toolbox includes a set of simple 'Hand Tools'; conversion of measurements and map co-ordinates; measuring the volume of stacked logs, slope, basal area; and a survey tool. A second set of more complex tools or 'Power Tools'; can be used to estimate site productivity, volume and value of wood grown for individual trees, at the coupe or stand level and forest estate level.

The wood industry or timber industry is the industry concerned with forestry, logging, timber trade, and the production of primary forest products and wood products and secondary products like wood pulp for the pulp and paper industry. Some of the largest producers are also among the biggest owners of forest. The wood industry has historically been and continues to be an important sector in many economies.

India and China are the two largest producers of genetically modified products in Asia. India currently only grows GM cotton, while China produces GM varieties of cotton, poplar, petunia, tomato, papaya and sweet pepper. Cost of enforcement of regulations in India are generally higher, possibly due to the greater influence farmers and small seed firms have on policy makers, while the enforcement of regulations was more effective in China. Other Asian countries that grew GM crops in 2011 were Pakistan, the Philippines and Myanmar. GM crops were approved for commercialisation in Bangladesh in 2013 and in Vietnam and Indonesia in 2014.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DMH-11 Mustard</span> Genetically modified variety of mustard plant

Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11, otherwise known as DMH - 11, is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species Brassica juncea. It was developed by Professor Deepak Pental from the University of Delhi, with the aim of reducing India's demand for edible oil imports. DMH - 11 was created through transgenic technology, primarily involving the Bar, Barnase and Barstar gene system. The Barnase gene confers male sterility, while the Barstar gene restores DMH - 11's ability to produce fertile seeds. The insertion of the third gene Bar, enables DMH - 11 to produce phosphinothricin-N- acetyl-transferase, the enzyme responsible for Glufosinate resistance. This hybrid mustard variety has come under intense public scrutiny, mainly due to concerns regarding DMH - 11's potential to adversely affect the environment as well as consumer health. DMH - 11 was found not to pose any food allergy risks, and has demonstrated increased yields over existing mustard varieties. Conflicting details and results regarding the field trials and safety evaluations conducted on DMH - 11 have delayed its approval for commercial cropping.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tree plantation</span> Type of forest planted for high volume production of wood

A tree plantation, forest plantation, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms. Plantation forestry can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners. Christmas trees are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.

References

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  38. ↑ Nottingham, S. (2002). Genescapes - The Ecology of Genetic Engineering. Zed Books. ISBN   9781842770375. Archived from the original on 2024-05-04. Retrieved 2021-05-29. fast-growing transgenic trees will make additional demands on soil nutrients and water, with consequences for the long-term fertility of soils. Substantial fertilizer inputs might be necessary to maintain high yields
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  40. ↑ "Into the Wildwood". The Economist. 4 May 2013. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  41. ↑ Harfouche, A. (2011). "Tree genetic engineering and applications to sustainable forestry and biomass production". Trends in Biotechnology. 29 (1): 13. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.09.003. PMID   20970211.
  42. ↑ Powell, William (March 2014) "the American Chestnut's Genetic Rebirth", Scientific American, Volume 310, Number 3, Page 52
  43. ↑ Lang, Chris (2004). "China: Genetically modified madness". The World Rainforest Movement. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2014. Two years ago, China's State Forestry Administration approved genetically modified (GM) poplar trees for commercial planting.
  44. ↑ Then, C.; Hamberger, S. (2010). "Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"?" (PDF). Testbiotech.de . Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-29.
  45. ↑ Sedjo, R.A. (2005). "Will Developing Countries be the Early Adopters of Genetically Engineered Forests? Resources for the Future" (PDF). AgBioForum. 8 (4): 205–211. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2014. the engineered gene has probably spread beyond the area of the original plantings (p.206)
  46. ↑ Carman, N. (2006). "Ecological and Social Impacts of Fast Growing Timber Plantations and Genetically Engineered Trees" (PDF). Dogwood Alliance. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-20. Retrieved 2014-01-31. The Nanjing Institute of Environmental Science has reported that contamination of native poplars with the Bt gene is already occurring. (p.4)
  47. ↑ Then, C.; Hamberger, S. (2010). "Genetically engineered trees – a ticking "time bomb"?" (PDF). Testbiotech. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-29. Bt poplars are grown alongside non-transgenic trees, possibly delaying the emergence of resistances. If this is the case, the transgenic poplars will have higher fitness in comparison to the other trees, thus conceivably fostering their invasiveness in the mid or even long-term. (p.16)
  48. ↑ "About". www.livingcarbon.com. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  49. 1 2 Tao, Yumin; Chiu, Li-Wei; Hoyle, Jacob W.; Dewhirst, Rebecca A.; Richey, Christian; Rasmussen, Karli; Du, Jessica; Mellor, Patrick; Kuiper, Julie; Tucker, Dominick; Crites, Alex; Orr, Gary A.; Heckert, Matthew J.; Godinez-Vidal, Damaris; Orozco-Cardenas, Martha L. (2023). "Enhanced Photosynthetic Efficiency for Increased Carbon Assimilation and Woody Biomass Production in Engineered Hybrid Poplar". Forests. 14 (4): 827. doi: 10.3390/f14040827 . ISSN   1999-4907.
  50. ↑ "Inside the quest to engineer climate-saving "super trees"". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  51. ↑ Corbyn, Zoë (2023-10-15). "Could superpowered plants be the heroes of the climate crisis?". The Observer. ISSN   0029-7712 . Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  52. ↑ Portala, Juliette (2023-07-27). "Genetically engineered trees stoke climate hope — and environmental fears". Mongabay Environmental News. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  53. ↑ Fialka, John. "Start-up Hopes 'Super' Poplar Trees Will Suck Up More CO2". Scientific American. Retrieved 2024-12-13.
  54. ↑ Decoding genetic technologies | CNN. 2023-02-27. Retrieved 2024-12-13– via edition.cnn.com.
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