Monoculture

Last updated

Monocultural potato field Tractors in Potato Field.jpg
Monocultural potato field

In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. [1] Monocultures increase ease and efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting crops short-term, often with the help of machinery. However, monocultures are more susceptible to diseases or pest outbreaks long-term [2] [3] due to localized reductions in biodiversity and nutrient depletion. [4] [5] Crop diversity can be added both in time, as with a crop rotation or sequence, or in space, with a polyculture or intercropping. [6]

Contents

Monocultures appear in contexts outside of agriculture and food production. Grass lawns are a common form of residential monocultures. [7] Several monocultures, including single-species forest plantations, have become increasingly abundant throughout the tropics following market globalization, impacting local communities. [5] [8] [9]

Genetic monocultures refer to crops that have little to no genetic variation. This is achieved using cultivars, made through processes of propagation [10] and selective breeding, [11] and can make populations susceptible to disease.

Agroecological practices, [12] silvo-pastoral systems, [13] and mixed-species plantations [14] are common alternatives to monoculture that help preserve biodiversity while maintaining productivity.

Agriculture

Agricultural monocultures refer to the practice of planting one crop species in a field. [15] Monoculture is widely used in intensive farming and in organic farming. In crop monocultures, each plant in a field has the same standardized planting, maintenance, and harvesting requirements resulting in greater yields and lower costs. When a crop is matched to its well-managed environment, a monoculture can produce higher yields than a polyculture. [16] Modern practices such as monoculture planting and the use of synthesized fertilizers have reduced the amount of additional land needed to produce food, [17] called land sparing.

Diversity of crops in space and time; monocultures and polycultures, and rotations of both. [6]
Diversity in time
LowHigher
CyclicDynamic (non-cyclic)
Diversity in spaceLowMonoculture, one species in a fieldContinuous

monoculture,

monocropping

Crop rotation

(rotation of monocultures)

Sequence of monocultures
HigherPolyculture, two or more species

intermingled in a field (intercropping)

Continuous

polyculture

Rotation of polyculturesSequence of polycultures

Note that the distinction between monoculture and polyculture is not the same as between monocropping and intercropping. The first two describe diversity in space, as does intercropping. Monocropping and crop rotation describe diversity over time.

Environmental impacts

Monocultures of perennials, such as African palm oil, [18] sugarcane, [4] [19] tea [20] [21] and pines, [22] can change soil chemistry leading to soil acidification, degradation, and soil-borne diseases, ultimately having a negative impact on agricultural productivity and sustainability. [4] The use of unregulated irrigation practices on popular monocultures, such as soy, can also lead to erosion and water loss. [8] As soil health declines, use of synthetic fertilizers on monocultural fields increases, often having negative implications on human health via chemical run-off. [8] [2]

In addition to soil depletion, monocultures can cause significant reductions in biodiversity due to unavailability of resources, native species displacement, and loss of genetic variation. [5] Following large-scale oil palm plantations in Latin America, research has revealed extensive declines in mammal, bird, amphibian, and pollinator diversity, particularly in Colombia and Brazil. [23]

Due to insufficient biodiversity and population balance, monocultures are associated with higher rates of disease and pest outbreaks. [2] [3] In response, pesticides are widely applied to agricultural fields, further harming insect and pollinator diversity [13] and human health. [5] [24] Increasing rotations of crop monocultures or using alternatives agricultural practices can help mitigate the risk of disease and attack. [3]

Social impacts

Environmental consequences of monocultural farming have notable social impacts, commonly concentrated to the reduction of small-scale farmers [5] and pesticide-related health issues. [8] [24] Monoculture is contradictive to several primitive, more sustainable farming practices utilized by small-scale farmers. [5] Following pest outbreaks, over 600 million liters of pesticides are sprayed annually, contaminating nearby small-scale farming and causing communal health decline. [24] Research has revealed increased prevalence of pesticide-related disorders, diseases, and cancers affecting the human neurological, gastrointestinal, skin, and respiratory systems. [24]

Agro-extractivism

Agro-extractivism is a form of extractivism in which foreign territorial, political, and economical dominance over agriculture is motivated by the large-scale production and exportation of agricultural commodities, often in the form of monocultures. [25]

Several monocultures in the Global South, such as sugar and coffee, were first planted in the 1800s following European colonization. [26] These plantations used slave labor, [27] setting a precedent for agriculture being a field dominated by foreign entities in the rest of Latin America and the Caribbean. [26] This social framework has shaped the oppression of Black people and smaller-scale farmers in the face of present-day land acquisition for monocultural use. [26]

The large-scale establishment of monocultures in the tropics has led to hindrance of local small-scale farms and indigenous land rights in the forms of reduced food sovereignty, [27] food security, land and water access, [8] and hunting. [9] Land privatization and pressure for monocultural expansion by larger companies takes different forms: silent evictions, [8] violence, [9] and reverse leasing arrangements. [5] Introduction to global trade makes small-scale farmers vulnerable to international demand, prices, and variations in climate affecting crop production. [9] Farmers who make contracts or take out loans with large corporations can face debt and loss of land if they fail to meet certain crop yields or profit. [9]

Monocultures are an aspect of agro-extractivism on account of high percentages of the produced crop being exported for processing and marketing by large transnational corporations, often in developed countries. [27] [5] For instance, following the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), agave production increased three-fold in Mexico from 1995 to 2019 due to foreign consumption, specifically by the United States. [5] Pararguay sees similar demands with soy crops, exporting the majority of production without nutrients returning to native soil. [27] More than 46 million hectares of soy has been planted across South America while over half a million hectares of land are being deforested annually to make land for cultivation. [24] Some international companies relevant in the field of agro-extractivist monocultures are Syngenta and Bayer (biotech), Los Grobo, CRESUD, El Tejar, and Maggi (landowners), and Cargill, ADM, and Bunge (grain and seed providers). [24]

Forestry

In forestry, monoculture refers to plantations of one species of tree. [28] In many areas of the world, forest monocultures are planted as an efficient way to produce and harvest timber. [29] Because timber harvest from monoculture forests is often an export-driven industry, these plantations can be a form of extractivism. [30] Following deforestation, monoculture afforestation has become increasingly popular due to the necessity for ecosystem services, such as mitigating the effects of climate change via carbon sequestration and gas regulation. [29] [30] [14] Eucalyptus, pines, and acacias are examples of popular monocultures being utilized in the tropics and the Global South following rainforest deforestation.

Environmental impacts

While forest monocultures are efficient ways of producing timber, studies show single-species forests reduce biodiversity, causing declines in forest productivity and native tree, animal, and insect populations over time. [29] [14] [23] The loss of biodiversity in forest monocultures is associated with lower forest resistance to pathogens, attack by insects, [31] and adverse environmental conditions. [32]

Social impacts

Monoculture plantations have been shown to have substantial social impacts on local communities. Forest monocultures have motivated migrations across Latin America due to localized water cycle interference, declining soil health, and changes in resource availability. [29] While industrial agriculture can increase employment opportunities, studies show forest plantations often have limited employment opportunities, with most workers coming from outside of the community. [30] Profits made from monoculture plantations historically follow a "boom and bust" trend, temporarily benefitting the community in increased income, revenue, and quality of life until resources are exhausted, with profits rarely distributed back into the deforested land. [33]

Environmental changes caused by monoculture forests are particularly felt among indigenous communities given their reliance and connection to the land while additionally becoming subject to land privatization. [30] These lands are frequently acquired through land grabbing and dispossession by large companies in global trade, ultimately reducing rural land, cutting off access to locals, and changing agricultural and community dynamics. [34]

Residential monoculture

Lawn monoculture in the United States was historically influenced by English gardens and manor-house landscapes, but its inception into the American landscape is fairly recent. [7] Aesthetics drove the evolution of the residential green areas, with turfgrass becoming a popular addition to many American homes. Turfgrass is a nonnative species and requires high levels of maintenance. At the local level, governments and organizations, such as Homeowner Associations, have pressured the maintenance of lawn aesthetics and influenced real estate value. Disagreements in residential maintenance of weeds and lawns have resulted in civil cases or direct aggression against neighbors. [7]

High levels of maintenance required for turfgrass created a growing demand for chemical management, i.e. pesticides, herbicides, insecticides. A 1999 study showed that in a sample of urban streams, at least one type of pesticide was found in 99% of the streams. A major risk associated with lawn pesticide use is the exposure to chemicals within the home through the air, clothing, and furniture, which can be more detrimental to children than to the average adult. [7]

Genetic monocultures

While often referring to the production of the same crop species in a field (space), monoculture can also refer to the planting of a single cultivar across a larger regional area, such that there are numerous plants in the area with an identical genetic makeup to each other. When all plants in a region are genetically similar, a disease to which they have no resistance can destroy entire populations of crops. As of 2009 the wheat leaf rust fungus caused much concern internationally, having already severely affected wheat crops in Uganda and Kenya, and having started to spread in Asia as well. [35] Given the very genetically similar strains of much of the world's wheat crops following the Green Revolution, the impacts of such diseases threaten agricultural production worldwide.

Historic examples of genetic monocultures

Great Famine of Ireland

In Ireland, exclusive use of one variety of potato, the "lumper", led to the Great Famine of 1845–1849. Lumpers provided inexpensive food to feed the Irish masses. Potatoes were propagated vegetatively with little to no genetic variation. When Phytophthora infestans arrived in Ireland from the Americas in 1845, the lumper had no resistance to the disease, leading to the nearly complete failure of the potato crop across Ireland.

Bananas

Until the 1950s, the Gros Michel cultivar of banana represented almost all bananas consumed in the United States because of their taste, small seeds, and efficiency to produce. Their small seeds, while more appealing than the large ones in other Asian cultivars, were not suitable for planting, [36] meaning all new banana plants had to be grown from the cut suckers of another plant. As a result of this asexual form of planting, all bananas grown had identical genetic makeups which gave them no traits for resistance to Fusarium wilt , a fungal disease that spread quickly throughout the Caribbean where they were being grown. By the beginning of the 1960s, growers had to switch to growing the Cavendish banana, a cultivar grown in a similar way. This cultivar is under similar disease stress since all the bananas are clones of each other and could easily succumb as the Gros Michel did. [10]

Cattle

Aerial view of deforested area prepared for monoculture or cattle ranching, near Porto Velho in Rondonia, Brazil, in 2020 SOBREVVO EM RONDONIA DIA 07-08-2020 (FOTO BRUNO KELLY) (62) (50224604772).jpg
Aerial view of deforested area prepared for monoculture or cattle ranching, near Porto Velho in Rondônia, Brazil, in 2020

Genetic monoculture can also refer to a single breed of farm animal being raised in large-scale concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Many livestock production systems rely on just a small number of highly specialized breeds. Focusing heavily on a single trait (output) may come at the expense of other desirable traits –such as fertility, resistance to disease, vigor, and mothering instincts. In the early 1990s, a few Holstein calves were observed to grow poorly and died in the first 6 months of life. They were all found to be homozygous for a mutation in the gene that caused bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency. This mutation was found at a high frequency in Holstein populations worldwide. (15% among bulls in the US, 10% in Germany, and 16% in Japan.) Researchers studying the pedigrees of affected and carrier animals tracked the source of the mutation to a single bull that was widely used in livestock production. In 1990 there were approximately 4 million Holstein cattle in the US, making the affected population around 600,000 animals. [11]

Benefits of genetic diversity

Increasing genetic diversity through the introduction of organisms with varying genes can make agricultural and livestock systems more sustainable. By utilizing crops with varying genetic traits for disease and pest resistance, chances of disease outbreak decrease due to the likelihood of neighboring plants having strain-resistant genes. [37] This can aid in increasing crop productivity while decreasing pesticide usage.

Alternatives to monoculture

Alternatives to monoculture include the consultation of agroecology, [12] silvo-pastoral systems, [13] and mixed-species plantations. [14]

Agroecology

Agroecology consults the entire food system, considering how agricultural inputs and outputs affect social, environmental, and economic systems. [38] Despite the recent dominance of GMO monoculture crop rotations of soy, corn, and cotton across the deforested Amazon, many Afrodescendant-run farms in Brazil continue to use traditional practices of agroecology that have the capacity to sustain the local community, environment, and economy. [12] Ecosystem-specific ecological damage done by monocultural practices and byproducts, including the use of biocides and soil degradation, can be irreparable. [12] However, the increasing modern prevalence of regenerative farming reinstates crop rotation and natural nutrient cycling to repair biodiversity and improve soil productivity. [39]

Silvopasture

Silvopasture is a traditional practice that incorporates the use of various trees and forage in pastures to increase land and livestock productivity. [40] Incorporating other plants in pastures, such as tree legumes, has been shown to enhance pollinator activity, benefitting local biodiversity and food security. [13] Silvopastoral systems provide greater pasture species richness and grazing feed, increasing economic and environmental outcomes on various size scales. [40]

Mixed-species plantations

In several studies, well-managed mixed-species plantations have been shown to produce greater economic outcomes than monocultures with regard to timber sales. [29] [14] Mixed-species forests are also associated with greater carbon sequestration and biodiversity, presenting a possible mitigation tactic against the climate crisis and current global carbon levels. [29] [14] However, mixed-species plantations are less common under the misconception of being more expensive and harder to manage. [14]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reforestation</span> Method for land and forest regeneration

Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Three important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood, for climate change mitigation, and for ecosystem and habitat restoration purposes. One method of reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intensive farming</span> Branch of agriculture

Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming, conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital, labour, agrochemicals and water, and higher crop yields per unit land area.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainable agriculture:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable agriculture</span> Farming approach that balances environmental, economic and social factors in the long term

Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services. There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture. When developing agriculture within sustainable food systems, it is important to develop flexible business processes and farming practices. Agriculture has an enormous environmental footprint, playing a significant role in causing climate change, water scarcity, water pollution, land degradation, deforestation and other processes; it is simultaneously causing environmental changes and being impacted by these changes. Sustainable agriculture consists of environment friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without causing damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects on soil, water, biodiversity, and surrounding or downstream resources, as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas. Elements of sustainable agriculture can include permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyculture</span> Growing multiple crops together in agriculture

In agriculture, polyculture is the practice of growing more than one crop species together in the same place at the same time, in contrast to monoculture, which had become the dominant approach in developed countries by 1950. Traditional examples include the intercropping of the Three Sisters, namely maize, beans, and squashes, by indigenous peoples of Central and North America, the rice-fish systems of Asia, and the complex mixed cropping systems of Nigeria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural biodiversity</span> Agricultural concept

Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is a subset of general biodiversity pertaining to agriculture. It can be defined as "the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures, functions and processes in and around production systems, and that provide food and non-food agricultural products.” It is managed by farmers, pastoralists, fishers and forest dwellers, agrobiodiversity provides stability, adaptability and resilience and constitutes a key element of the livelihood strategies of rural communities throughout the world. Agrobiodiversity is central to sustainable food systems and sustainable diets. The use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to food security, nutrition security, and livelihood security, and it is critical for climate adaptation and climate mitigation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroforestry</span> Land use management system

Agroforestry is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits, nuts, other edible plant products, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, animals and animal products, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.

In agriculture, monocropping is the practice of growing a single crop year after year on the same land. Maize, soybeans, and wheat are three common crops often monocropped. Monocropping is also referred to as continuous cropping, as in "continuous corn." Monocropping allows for farmers to have consistent crops throughout their entire farm. They can plant only the most profitable crop, use the same seed, pest control, machinery, and growing method on their entire farm, which may increase overall farm profitability.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil conservation</span> Preservation of soil nutrients

Soil conservation is the prevention of loss of the topmost layer of the soil from erosion or prevention of reduced fertility caused by over usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habitat destruction</span> Process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species

Habitat destruction occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved to elsewhere or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers. Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.

Food biodiversity is defined as "the diversity of plants, animals and other organisms used for food, covering the genetic resources within species, between species and provided by ecosystems."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest management</span> Branch of forestry

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values. Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shade-grown coffee</span> Coffee grown under a canopy of trees

Shade-grown coffee is a form of crop produced from coffee plants grown under a canopy of trees. A canopy of assorted types of shade trees is created to cultivate shade-grown coffee. Because it incorporates principles of natural ecology to promote natural ecological relationships, shade-grown coffee can be considered an offshoot of agricultural permaculture or agroforestry. The resulting coffee can be marketed as "shade-grown".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroecology in Latin America</span> Agroecological practices in Latin America

Agroecology is an applied science that involves the adaptation of ecological concepts to the structure, performance, and management of sustainable agroecosystems. In Latin America, agroecological practices have a long history and vary between regions but share three main approaches or levels: plot scale, farm scale, and food system scale. Agroecology in Latin American countries can be used as a tool for providing both ecological, economic, and social benefits to the communities that practice it, as well as maintaining high biodiversity and providing refuges for flora and fauna in these countries. Due to its broad scope and versatility, it is often referred to as "a science, a movement, a practice."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodiversity in agriculture</span> Increasing biodiversity in agriculture

Biodiversity in agriculture is the measure of biodiversity found on agricultural land. Biodiversity is the total diversity of species present in an area at all levels of biological organization. It is characterized by heterogeneous habitats that support the diverse ecological structure. In agricultural areas, biodiversity decreases as varying landscapes are lost and native plants are replaced with cultivated crops. Increasing biodiversity in agriculture can increase the sustainability of farms through the restoration of ecosystem services that aid in regulating agricultural lands. Biodiversity in agriculture can be increased through the process of agroecological restoration, as farm biodiversity is an aspect of agroecology.

Crop diversity or crop biodiversity is the variety and variability of crops, plants used in agriculture, including their genetic and phenotypic characteristics. It is a subset of a specific element of agricultural biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deforestation in Costa Rica</span>

Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystems in Costa Rica. The country has a rich biodiversity with some 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals, which have been under threat from the effects of deforestation. Agricultural development, cattle ranching, and logging have caused major deforestation as more land is cleared for these activities. Despite government efforts to mitigate deforestation, it continues to cause harm to the environment of Costa Rica by impacting flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.

The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social and environmental impact of palm oil</span> Discussion of impact

Palm oil, produced from the oil palm, is a basic source of income for many farmers in South East Asia, Central and West Africa, and Central America. It is locally used as cooking oil, exported for use in much commercial food and personal care products and is converted into biofuel. It produces up to 10 times more oil per unit area than soybeans, rapeseed or sunflowers.

Costa Rican agriculture plays a profound part in the country's gross domestic product (GDP). It makes up about 6.5% of Costa Rica's GDP, and 14% of the labor force. Depending upon location and altitude, many regions differ in agricultural crops and techniques. The main exports include: bananas, pineapples, coffee, sugar, rice, vegetables, tropical fruits, ornamental plants, corn, potatoes and palm oil.

References

  1. ↑ Pandey, D.K; Adhiguru, P; De, H K; Hazarikaa, B N (2021). "Permaculture to monoculture in shifting cultivation landscape of Mizoram, Northeast India: Are agrobiodiversity and happiness waning?" (PDF). Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 20 (2): 479–485.
  2. 1 2 3 Duffy, J. E. (2009). "Why biodiversity is important to the functioning of real-world ecosystems". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment . 7 (8): 437–444. Bibcode:2009FrEE....7..437D. doi:10.1890/070195.
  3. 1 2 3 Bullock, D. G. (January 1992). "Crop rotation". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences . 11 (4): 309–326. Bibcode:1992CRvPS..11..309B. doi:10.1080/07352689209382349. ISSN   0735-2689.
  4. 1 2 3 Tayyab, Muhammad; Yang, Ziqi; Zhang, Caifang; Islam, Waqar; Lin, Wenxiong; Zhang, Hua (26 April 2021). "Sugarcane monoculture drives microbial community composition, activity and abundance of agricultural-related microorganisms". Environmental Science and Pollution Research . 28 (35): 48080–48096. Bibcode:2021ESPR...2848080T. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-14033-y. ISSN   0944-1344. PMID   33904129. S2CID   233403664.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tetreault, Darcy; McCulligh, Cindy; Lucio, Carlos (2020). "Distilling agro-extractivism: Agave and tequila production in Mexico". Journal of Agrarian Change. 21 (2): 219–241. doi:10.1111/joac.12402. ISSN   1471-0358.
  6. 1 2 "Ecological Theories, Meta-Analysis, and the Benefits of Monocultures" . Retrieved 18 September 2015.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Robbins, Paul; Sharp, Julie (November 2003). "The Lawn-Chemical Economy and Its Discontents". Antipode . 35 (5): 955–979. Bibcode:2003Antip..35..955R. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2003.00366.x. ISSN   0066-4812. S2CID   154002130.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Russo Lopes, Gabriela; Bastos Lima, Mairon G.; Reis, Tiago N. P. dos (1 March 2021). "Maldevelopment revisited: Inclusiveness and social impacts of soy expansion over Brazil's Cerrado in Matopiba". World Development. 139: 105316. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105316. ISSN   0305-750X.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Wesz Junior, Valdemar João (2021). "Soybean production in Paraguay: Agribusiness, economic change and agrarian transformations". Journal of Agrarian Change. 22 (2): 317–340. doi:10.1111/joac.12436. ISSN   1471-0358.
  10. 1 2 Schwarzacher, Trude; Heslop-Harrison, J. S. (1 October 2007). "Domestication, Genomics and the Future for Banana". Annals of Botany . 100 (5): 1073–1084. doi:10.1093/aob/mcm191. ISSN   0305-7364. PMC   2759213 . PMID   17766312.
  11. 1 2 Williams, J.L. (22 October 2015). "The Value of Genome Mapping for the Genetic Conservation of Cattle". Rome: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Salleh, Ariel (19 September 2023). "Extractivisms, existences, and extinctions: monoculture plantations and Amazon deforestation. Markus Kroger, Extractivisms, existences, and extinctions: monoculture plantations and Amazon deforestation . London: Routledge, 2022. US$160(Hardcover). ISBN 9780367610302: Markus Kroger, London: Routledge, 2022. US$160 (Hardcover). ISBN 9780367610302". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 50 (6): 2501–2504. doi:10.1080/03066150.2022.2137625. ISSN   0306-6150.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Narjes Sanchez, Manuel Ernesto; Cardoso Arango, Juan Andrés; Burkart, Stefan (22 September 2021). "Promoting Forage Legume–Pollinator Interactions: Integrating Crop Pollination Management, Native Beekeeping and Silvopastoral Systems in Tropical Latin America". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 5. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.725981 . ISSN   2571-581X.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pinnschmidt, Arne; Yousefpour, Rasoul; Nölte, Anja; Hanewinkel, Marc (1 September 2023). "Tropical mixed-species plantations can outperform monocultures in terms of carbon sequestration and economic return". Ecological Economics. 211: 107885. Bibcode:2023EcoEc.21107885P. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2023.107885. ISSN   0921-8009.
  15. ↑ Connor, David J.; Loomis, Robert S.; Cassman, Kenneth G. (28 April 2011). Crop Ecology: Productivity and Management in Agricultural Systems. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-139-50032-6.
  16. ↑ Cardinale, Bradley J.; Matulich, Kristin L.; Hooper, David U.; Byrnes, Jarrett E.; Duffy, Emmett; Gamfeldt, Lars; Balvanera, Patricia; O’Connor, Mary I.; Gonzalez, Andrew (1 March 2011). "The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems". American Journal of Botany . 98 (3): 572–592. doi:10.3732/ajb.1000364. hdl: 2027.42/141994 . ISSN   0002-9122. PMID   21613148. S2CID   10801536.
  17. ↑ G. Tyler Miller; Scott Spoolman (24 September 2008). Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions. Cengage Learning. p. 279. ISBN   978-0-495-55671-8.
  18. ↑ Leech, Garry (2009). "The Oil Palm Industry: A Blight on Afro-Colombia". NACLA Report on the Americas . 42 (4): 30–34. doi:10.1080/10714839.2009.11725459. S2CID   157642907.
  19. ↑ Correa-García, Esteban (Summer 2018). "Territorial transformations produced by the sugarcane agroindustry in the ethnic communities of López Adentro and El Tiple, Colombia". Land Use Policy . 76: 847–860. Bibcode:2018LUPol..76..847C. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.03.026. S2CID   51932235.
  20. ↑ Arafat, Yasir; Ud Din, Israr; Tayyab, Muhammad; Jiang, Yuhang; Chen, Ting; Cai, Zhaoying; Zhao, Hanyu; Lin, Xiangmin; Lin, Wenxiong; Lin, Sheng (2020). "Soil Sickness in Aged Tea Plantation Is Associated With a Shift in Microbial Communities as a Result of Plant Polyphenol Accumulation in the Tea Gardens". Frontiers in Plant Science . 11: 601. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00601 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   7270330 . PMID   32547573.
  21. ↑ Arafat, Yasir; Tayyab, Muhammad; Khan, Muhammad Umar; Chen, Ting; Amjad, Hira; Awais, Saadia; Lin, Xiangmin; Lin, Wenxiong; Lin, Sheng (August 2019). "Long-Term Monoculture Negatively Regulates Fungal Community Composition and Abundance of Tea Orchards". Agronomy . 9 (8): 466. doi: 10.3390/agronomy9080466 .
  22. ↑ Cordero, Adolfo. "Large scale eucalypt plantations associated to increased fire risk". PeerJ Preprints. doi: 10.7287/peerj.preprints.3348v1 .
  23. 1 2 Knowlton, Jessie L.; Mata Zayas, Ena E.; Ripley, Andres J.; Valenzuela-Cordova, Bertha; Collado-Torres, Ricardo (1 November 2019). "Mammal Diversity in Oil Palm Plantations and Forest Fragments in a Highly Modified Landscape in Southern Mexico". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 2. doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2019.00067 . ISSN   2624-893X.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "The United Republic of Soybeans: take two". grain.org. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  25. ↑ Fernandes, Bernardo Mançano. "LAND GRABBING FOR AGRO-EXTRACTIVISM IN THE SECOND NEOLIBERAL PHASE IN BRAZIL/Estrangeirização da terra para o agroextrativismo na segunda fase neoliberal no Brasil/ El acaparamiento de tierras para el agro-extractivismo en la segunda fase neoliberal en Brasil". REVISTA NERA (in Portuguese) (50): 208–238. doi:10.47946/rnera.v0i50.6612. ISSN   1806-6755.
  26. 1 2 3 Beckles, Hilary McD. (1991). "Review of Cuban Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century: The Social and Economic History of Monoculture in Matanzas., by L. W. Bergad". The Journal of Economic History. 51 (4): 982–984.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Veltmeyer, Henry; Ezquerro-Cañete, Arturo (29 July 2023). "Agro-extractivism". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 50 (5): 1673–1686. doi:10.1080/03066150.2023.2218802. ISSN   0306-6150.
  28. ↑ Monoculture Forestry
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Liu, Corsa Lok Ching; Kuchma, Oleksandra; Krutovsky, Konstantin V. (1 July 2018). "Mixed-species versus monocultures in plantation forestry: Development, benefits, ecosystem services and perspectives for the future". Global Ecology and Conservation. 15: e00419. Bibcode:2018GEcoC..1500419L. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00419. ISSN   2351-9894.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Carte, Lindsey; Hofflinger, Álvaro; Polk, Molly H. (10 March 2021). "Expanding Exotic Forest Plantations and Declining Rural Populations in La Araucanía, Chile". Land. 10 (3): 283. doi: 10.3390/land10030283 . ISSN   2073-445X.
  31. ↑ Richardson, David M., ed. (2000). Ecology and biogeography of Pinus. Cambridge, U.K. p. 371. ISBN   978-0-521-78910-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  32. ↑ "Forestry". USEPA .
  33. ↑ Sacchi, Laura Valeria; Gasparri, Nestor Ignacio (2 September 2016). "Impacts of the deforestation driven by agribusiness on urban population and economic activity in the Dry Chaco of Argentina". Journal of Land Use Science. 11 (5): 523–537. doi:10.1080/1747423X.2015.1098739. hdl:11336/55353. ISSN   1747-423X.
  34. ↑ Infante, Felipe (2 September 2023). "Social capital and landscape: effects of monoculture forest plantations on small producers in the Mediterranean dryland of south-central Chile". Rural Society. 32 (3): 151–168. doi:10.1080/10371656.2023.2270849. ISSN   1037-1656.
  35. ↑ Vidal, John (19 March 2009). "'Stem rust' fungus threatens global wheat harvest". The Guardian . London . Retrieved 13 May 2010.
  36. ↑ "Gros Michel". The banana knowledge platform of the ProMusa network. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
  37. ↑ Hajjar, Reem; Jarvis, Devra I.; Gemmill-Herren, Barbara (February 2008). "The utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem services". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment . 123 (4): 261–270. Bibcode:2008AgEE..123..261H. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2007.08.003. ISSN   0167-8809.
  38. ↑ Gliessman, Steve (3 July 2018). "Defining Agroecology". Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems. 42 (6): 599–600. doi:10.1080/21683565.2018.1432329. ISSN   2168-3565.
  39. ↑ Giller, Ken E; Hijbeek, Renske; Andersson, Jens A; Sumberg, James (2021). "Regenerative Agriculture: An agronomic perspective". Outlook on Agriculture. 50 (1): 13–25. doi:10.1177/0030727021998063. ISSN   0030-7270. PMC   8023280 . PMID   33867585.
  40. 1 2 Jose, Shibu; Dollinger, Jeanne (1 February 2019). "Silvopasture: a sustainable livestock production system". Agroforestry Systems. 93 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1007/s10457-019-00366-8. ISSN   1572-9680.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.