Urban horticulture

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Urban horticulture is the science and study of the growing plants in an urban environment. It focuses on the functional use of horticulture so as to maintain and improve the surrounding urban area. [1] [2] Urban horticulture has seen an increase in attention with the global trend of urbanization and works to study the harvest, aesthetic, architectural, recreational and psychological purposes and effects of plants in urban environments.

Contents

Salad lettuce cultivation at the Growing Communities' urban plot, in Springfield Park, Clapton, North London Urban salad growing-London.jpg
Salad lettuce cultivation at the Growing Communities' urban plot, in Springfield Park, Clapton, North London
Small radish grown on a balcony in Barcelona city Ravenets 14 gener11.JPG
Small radish grown on a balcony in Barcelona city
A variety of flowers and vegetables grown under metal halide lamps Indoor garden.jpg
A variety of flowers and vegetables grown under metal halide lamps

History

Horticulture and the integration of nature into human civilization has been a major part in the establishment of cities. During the Neolithic Revolution cities would often be built with market gardens and farms as their trading centers. Studies in urban horticulture rapidly increased with the major growth of cities during the Industrial Revolution. These insights led to the field being dispersed to farmers in the hinterlands. [3] For centuries, the built environment such as homes, public buildings, etc. were integrated with cultivation in the form of gardens, farms, and grazing lands, Kitchen gardens, farms, common grazing land, etc. Therefore, horticulture was a regular part of everyday life in the city. [4] With the Industrial Revolution and the related increasing populations rapidly changed the landscape and replaced green spaces with brick and asphalt. After the nineteenth century, Horticulture was then selectively restored in some urban spaces as a response to the unhealthy conditions of factory neighborhoods and cities began seeing the development of parks. [4]

Post World War II trends

Early urban horticulture movements majorly served the purposes of short term welfare during recession periods, philanthropic charity to uplift "the masses" or patriotic relief. [5] The tradition of urban horticulture mostly declined after World War II as suburbs became the focus of residential and commercial growth. Most of the economically stable population moved out of the cities into the suburbs, leaving only slums and ghettos at the city centers. However, there were a few exceptions of garden projects initiated by public housing authorities in the 1950s and 1960s for the purpose of beautification and tenant pride. [4] But for the most part as businesses also left the metropolitan areas, it generated wastelands and areas of segregated poverty.[ citation needed ]

Inevitably the disinvestment of major city centers, specifically in America resulted in the drastic increase of vacant lots. Existing buildings became uninhabitable, houses were abandoned and even productive industrial land became vacant. [4] Modern community gardening, urban agriculture, and food security movements were a form of response to battle the above problems at a local level. In fact other movements at that time such as the peace, environmental, women's, civil rights, and "back-to-the-city" movements of the 1960s and 1970s and the environmental justice movement of the 1980s and 1990s saw opportunity in these vacant lands as a way of reviving communities through school and community gardens, farmers' markets, and urban agriculture. [4]

Modern community garden movement

Things have taken a turn in the twenty-first century as people are recognizing the need for local community gardens and green spaces. It is not the concept but the purposes that are new. The main goals of this movement include cleaning up neighborhoods, pushing out drug dealing that occurs at empty lots, growing and preserving food for consumption, restoring nature to industrial areas, and bringing the farming traditions to urban cities. [6] Essentially community gardening is seen as way of creating a relationship between people and a place through social and physical engagement. Most urban gardens are created on vacant land that vary in size and are generally gardened as individual plots by community members. Such areas can support social, cultural, and artistic events and contribute to the rebuilding of local community spirit. The modern community garden movement is initiated by neighborhoods along with the support of the governments and non-profit organizations. Some gardens are linked to public housing projects, schools through garden-based learning programs, churches and social agencies and some even employ those who are incarcerated. Community gardens which are now a large part of the urban horticulture movement are different from the earlier periods of grand park development in that the latter only served to free the people from the industrialism. In addition a community garden is more beneficial and engaging than a mere lawn or park and serves as a valuable access to nature where wilderness is unavailable. This movement helped create and sustain relationships between city dwellers and the soil and contributed to a different kind of urban environmentalism that did not have any characteristics of reform charity. [4]

Despite that it has been 30 years since the first community gardens in the US, there is no concrete analysis of current urban gardens and their organizations. The American Community Gardening Association (ACGA) has estimations that show that municipal governments and non-profit organizations operate gardening programs in about 250 cities and towns, although the staff of this organization admits that this number could in reality be twice as large. In 1994 survey, the National Gardening Association found that 6.7 million households, that weren't involved in gardening would be interested in doing so if there was a plot nearby. [7] A more recent survey showed that more gardens are being created in cities as opposed to being lost to economic development.[ citation needed ]

Today urban horticulture has several components that include more than just community gardens, such as market gardens, small farms and farmers' markets and is an important aspect of community development. Another result of urban horticulture is the food security movement where locally grown food is given precedence through several projects and programs, thus providing low-cost and nutritious food. Urban community gardens and the food security movement was a response to the problems of industrial agriculture and to solve its related problems of price inflation, lack of supermarkets, food scarcity, etc.[ citation needed ]

Benefits

World War I poster of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, encouraging the use of vacant urban areas for gardening "Help Feed Yourself. Make back yards and vacant lots productive. Work a garden- Raise children... Somebody has to... - NARA - 512681.jpg
World War I poster of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, encouraging the use of vacant urban areas for gardening

Horticulture by itself is a practical and applied science, which means it can have a significance in our everyday lives. As community gardens cannot actually compete with market-based land uses, it is essential to find other ways to understand their various benefits such as their contribution to social, human, and financial well-being. Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York City's Central Park observed that the trees, meadows, ponds and wildlife tranquilize the stresses of city life. [4] According to various studies over the years, nature has a very positive impact over human health and even more so in an emotional and psychological sense. Trees, grass, and flower gardens, due to their presence as well as visibility, increase people's life satisfaction by reducing fatigue and irritation and restoring a sense of calm. [8] In fact Honeyman tested the restorative value of nature scenes in urban settings and discovered that vegetation in an urban setting produced more mental restoration as opposed to areas without vegetation. In addition, areas with only nature did not have as much of a positive psychological impact as did the combination of urban areas and nature. [9]

One of the obvious health benefits of gardening is the increased intake of fruits and vegetables. But the act of gardening itself, is also a major health benefit. Gardening is a low-impact exercise, which when added into daily activities, can help reduce weight, lower stress, and improve overall health. A recent study showed a reduced body mass index and lower weight in community gardeners compared with their non-gardening counterparts [10] The study showed men who gardened had a body mass index 2.36 lower and were 62% less likely to be overweight than their neighbors, while women were 46% less likely to be overweight with a body mass index 1.88 lower than their neighbors. [10] Access to urban gardens can improve health through nutritious, edible plantings, as well by getting people outside and promoting more activity in their environments.

Gardening programs in inner-city schools have become increasingly popular as a way to teach children not only about healthy eating habits, but also to encourage students to become active learners. [11] Besides getting students outside and moving, and encouraging an active lifestyle, children also learn leadership, teamwork, communication and collaboration skills, in addition to critical and creative thinking skills. [11] Gardening in schools will enable children to share with their families the health and nutrition benefits of eating fresh fruits and vegetables. Because weather and soil conditions are in a state of constant change, students learn to adapt their thinking and creatively problem solve, depending on the situations that arise. [11] Students also learn to interact and communicate with a diverse population of people, from other students to adult volunteers. These programs benefit students' health and enable them to be active contributors in the world around them.[ citation needed ]

Gardens and other green spaces also increase social activity and help in creating a sense of place, apart from their various other purposes such as enhancing the community by mediating environmental factors. There is also a huge disparity in the availability of sources that provide nutritious and affordable foods especially around urban centers which have problems of poverty, lack of public transport and abandonment by supermarkets. Therefore, inner city community gardens can be a valuable source of nutrition at an affordable cost in the most easily accessible way.[ citation needed ]

In order to understand and thereby maximize the benefits of urban horticulture, it is essential to document the effects of horticulture activities and quantify the benefits so that governments and private industries can make the appropriate changes. Horticulturists have always been involved in the botanical and physical aspects of horticulture but an involvement in its social and emotional factors would be highly beneficial to communities, cities and to the field of horticulture and its profession. Based on this, in the 1970s, the International Society for Horticultural Science recognized this need for research on the functional use of plants in an urban setting along with the need of improved communication between scientists in this field of research and people who utilize plants. The Commission for Urban Horticulture was established in 1982 which deals with plants grown in urban areas, management techniques, the functional use of these plants as well the shortcomings of the current lack of knowledge regarding this field. The establishment of such a commission is an important indicator that this topic has reached a level of international recognition. [12]

Economic benefits

There are many different economic benefits from gardening from saving money purchasing food and even on the utility bills. Developing countries can spend up to 60–80 percent of income on buying food alone. In Barbara Lake, Milfront Taciano and Gavin Michaels Journal of Psychology article "The Relative Influence of Psycho-Social Factors on Urban Gardening", they say that while people are saving money on buying food, having roof top gardens are also becoming popular. Having green roofs can reduce the cost of heating in the winter and help stay cool in the summer. Green roofs also can lower the cost of roof replacement. While green roofs are an addition to urban horticulture people are eating healthy while also improving the value of their property. Other benefits include increased employment from non-commercial jobs where producers include reductions on the cost of food. [13]

Production practices

Tomato plants growing in a pot farming alongside a small house in New Jersey in fifteen garbage cans filled with soil grew over 700 tomatoes during the summer of 2013. Tomato plants growing July 2013 in garbage cans.JPG
Tomato plants growing in a pot farming alongside a small house in New Jersey in fifteen garbage cans filled with soil grew over 700 tomatoes during the summer of 2013.

Crops are grown in flowerpots, [14] growbags, small gardens or larger fields, using traditional or high-tech and innovative practices. Some new techniques that have been adapted to the urban situation and tackle the main city restrictions are also documented. These include horticultural production on built-up land using various types of substrates (e.g. roof top, organic production and hydroponic/aeroponic production). The adaptation of vertical farming methods like the use of trellises or tomato cages are popular options for urban horticulture. [15] Because of this, it is also known as roof-top vegetable gardening/horticulture and container vegetable gardening/horticulture.[ citation needed ]

Urban horticulture around the world

Urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa

A report of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Growing greener cities in Africa, [16] states that market gardening – i.e. irrigated, commercial production of fruit and vegetables in areas designated for the purpose, or in other urban open spaces – is the single most important source of locally grown, fresh produce in 10 out of 27 African countries for which data are available. Market gardening produces most of all the leafy vegetables consumed in Accra, Dakar, Bangui, Brazzaville, Ibadan, Kinshasa and Yaoundé, cities that, between them, have a total population of 22.5 million. Market gardens provide around half of the leafy vegetable supply in Addis Ababa, Bissau and Libreville. The report says that in most of urban Africa, market gardening is an informal and often illegal activity, which has grown with little official recognition, regulation or support. Most gardeners have no formal title to their land, and many lose it overnight. Land suitable for horticulture is being taken for housing, industry and infrastructure. To maximize earnings from insecure livelihoods, many gardeners are overusing pesticide and urban waste water.[ citation needed ] [17]

Urban horticulture in Latin America

Starting in the 1980s, Latin American governments came to see urban agroecology and horticulture not only as an agricultural practice but as a revolutionary tool aimed at restructuring society along more equitable and sustainable lines. [18] In some cases, urban horticulture fell under the larger umbrella of 'urban agriculture' and was utilized as a way for governments to push for better agricultural policies that helped citizens. In Latin America, institutional support for urban farming practices came through the social reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, where there was a significant push for sustainable and equitable agricultural practices as a response to the failures of the Green Revolution. [19] [18] The Green Revolution as well as globalism prompted South American governments to invest less in agriculture and incentivized higher expenditure on food imports, often due to international economic pressure. [20] These policies hurt national food sovereignty and small-scale farmers, and further exacerbated existing socio-economic inequalities. [18]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gardening</span> Practice of growing and cultivating plants

Gardening is the process of growing plants for their vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs, and appearances within a designated space. Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of aesthetically pleasing areas, medicines, cosmetics, dyes, foods, poisons, wildlife habitats, and saleable goods. People often partake in gardening for its therapeutic, health, educational, cultural, philosophical, environmental, and religious benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allotment (gardening)</span> Plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening

An allotment, a type of community garden, is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening for growing food plants, so forming a kitchen garden away from the residence of the user. Such plots are formed by subdividing a piece of land into a few or up to several hundred parcels that are assigned to individuals or families. Such parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other community garden types where the entire area is tended collectively by a group of people. In countries that do not use the term "allotment (garden)", a "community garden" may refer to individual small garden plots as well as to a single, large piece of land gardened collectively by a group of people. The term "victory garden" is also still sometimes used, especially when a community garden dates back to the First or Second World War.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainable agriculture:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roof garden</span> Planted area on the top covering of a building

A roof garden is a garden on the roof of a building. Besides the decorative benefit, roof plantings may provide food, temperature control, hydrological benefits, architectural enhancement, habitats or corridors for wildlife, recreational opportunities, and in large scale it may even have ecological benefits. The practice of cultivating food on the rooftop of buildings is sometimes referred to as rooftop farming. Rooftop farming is usually done using green roof, hydroponics, aeroponics or air-dynaponics systems or container gardens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban agriculture</span> Farming in cities and urban areas

Urban agriculture refers to various practices of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in urban areas. The term also applies to the area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture in an urban context. Urban agriculture is distinguished from peri-urban agriculture, which takes place in rural areas at the edge of suburbs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Market garden</span> Small consumer-oriented agriculture

A market garden is the relatively small-scale production of fruits, vegetables and flowers as cash crops, frequently sold directly to consumers and restaurants. The diversity of crops grown on a small area of land, typically from under 0.40 hectares to some hectares, or sometimes in greenhouses, distinguishes it from other types of farming. A market garden is sometimes called a truck farm in the US.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organic horticulture</span> Organic cultivation of fruit, vegetables, flowers or ornamental plants

Organic horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants by following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and conservation, pest management, and heirloom variety preservation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Container garden</span> Practice of growing plants exclusively in containers

Container gardening or pot gardening/farming is the practice of growing plants, including edible plants, exclusively in containers instead of planting them in the ground. A container in gardening is a small, enclosed and usually portable object used for displaying live flowers or plants. It may take the form of a pot, box, tub, basket, tin, barrel or hanging basket.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community gardening</span> Type of horticulture and food production

A community garden is a piece of land gardened or cultivated by a group of people individually or collectively. Normally in community gardens, the land is divided into individual plots. Each individual gardener is responsible for their own plot and the yielding or the production of which belongs to the individual. In collective gardens the piece of land is not divided. A group of people cultivate it together and the harvest belongs to all participants. Around the world, community gardens exist in various forms, it can be located in the proximity of neighborhoods or on balconies and rooftops. Its size can vary greatly from one to another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greening</span> Process of incorporating more environmentally friendly behaviors or systems

Greening is the process of transforming living environments, and also artifacts such as a space, a lifestyle or a brand image, into a more environmentally friendly version. The act of greening generally involves incorporating more environmentally friendly systems into one's environment, such as the home, work place, and general lifestyle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroecology in Latin America</span> Agroecological practices in Latin America

Agroecology is an applied science that involves the adaptation of ecological concepts to the structure, performance, and management of sustainable agroecosystems. In Latin America, agroecological practices have a long history and vary between regions but share three main approaches or levels: plot scale, farm scale, and food system scale. Agroecology in Latin American countries can be used as a tool for providing both ecological, economic, and social benefits to the communities that practice it, as well as maintaining high biodiversity and providing refuges for flora and fauna in these countries. Due to its broad scope and versatility, it is often referred to as "a science, a movement, a practice."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable gardening</span>

Sustainable gardening includes the more specific sustainable landscapes, sustainable landscape design, sustainable landscaping, sustainable landscape architecture, resulting in sustainable sites. It comprises a disparate group of horticultural interests that can share the aims and objectives associated with the international post-1980s sustainable development and sustainability programs developed to address that humans are now using natural biophysical resources faster than they can be replenished by nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural farming</span> Sustainable farming approach

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community gardening in the United States</span>

Community gardens in the United States benefit both gardeners and society at large. Community gardens provide fresh produce to gardeners and their friends and neighbors. They provide a place of connection to nature and to other people. In a wider sense, community gardens provide green space, a habitat for insects and animals, sites for gardening education, and beautification of the local area. Community gardens provide access to land to those who otherwise could not have a garden, such as apartment-dwellers, the elderly, and the homeless. Many gardens resemble European allotment gardens, with plots or boxes where individuals and families can grow vegetables and flowers, including a number which began as victory gardens during World War II. Other gardens are worked as community farms with no individual plots at all, similar to urban farms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foodscaping</span> Ornamental landscaping with edible plants

Foodscaping is a modern term for the practice of integrating edible plants into ornamental landscapes. It is also referred to as edible landscaping and has been described as a crossbreed between landscaping and farming. As an ideology, foodscaping aims to show that edible plants are not only consumable but can also be appreciated for their aesthetic qualities. Foodscaping spaces are seen as multi-functional landscapes which are visually attractive and also provide edible returns. Foodscaping is a method of providing fresh food in an affordable and sustainable way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urban agriculture in West Oakland</span>

Urban agriculture in West Oakland involves the implementation of Urban agriculture in West Oakland, California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peri-urban agriculture</span> Aspect of agriculture

Peri-urban regions can be defined as 'superficial' rural areas that are within the orbit of immediate urban hubs, in other words, areas that surround large population centers. These regions can also be referred to as 'exurban areas', 'the rural-urban fringe' or the 'fringe', they include the transition zones between the outer limits of the commuter belt and the edge of newly constructed suburban areas.

The Food Justice Movement is a grassroots initiative which emerged in response to food insecurity and economic pressures that prevent access to healthy, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods. The food justice movement moves beyond increasing food availability and works to address the root cause of unequal access to adequate nutrition. Like other Environmental Justice initiatives, the Food Justice Movement advocates for rights-based solutions that identify the underlying human rights that allow individuals to achieve adequate food security and nutrition. This differs from policy-based solutions that focus on food availability and affordability by increasing food production or lowering the cost of food.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">School garden</span>

A school garden is an area designated for students to learn how to cultivate flowers and vegetable gardens in their school. They are commonly established to improve students' health, social development, and academic achievement.

Urban agriculture is the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. It is the growing of fresh produce within the city for individual, communal, or commercial purposes in cities in both developed and developing countries.

References

  1. ↑ Relf, Diane. "Human Issues In Horticulture". Virginia Tech. Department of Horticulture. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
  2. ↑ Tukey, HB Jr. (1983). "Urban horticulture: horticulture for populated areas". HortScience. 18: 11–13. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.18.1.11. S2CID   252705764.
  3. ↑ Jacobs, Jane (January 1, 1969). The Economy of Cities. New York: Random House.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hynes, H.P; Howe, G (2004). Urban Horticulture in the Contemporary United States: Personal and Community Benefits. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 643. pp. 171–181.
  5. ↑ Bassett, Thomas J. (1981). "Reaping on the Margins: A Century of Community Gardening in America". 25 (2): 1–8.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ↑ Hynes, Patricia (May 1, 1996). A Patch of Eden: America's Inner-City Gardeners (First ed.). Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.
  7. ↑ American Community Gardening Association (1995). Monograph on the 1994 National Gardening Association Survey. Philadelphia.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  8. ↑ Kaplan, R; Kaplan, S (1990). Restorative experience: The healing power of nearby nature. Cambridge, Massachusetts: In: Francis and R.T. Hoster (eds). pp. 238–244.
  9. ↑ Honeyman, M (1992). Vegetation and stress: A comparison study of varying amounts of vegetation in countryside and urban scenes. Portland: In: The Role of Horticulture in Human Well-Being and Social Development: A National Symposium. Timber Press. pp. 143–145.
  10. 1 2 Zick, C; et al. (2013). Harvesting More Than Vegetables: The Potential Weight Control Benefits of Community Gardening. American Journal of Public Health. pp. 1110–1115.
  11. 1 2 3 Ausherman, J; Ubbes, V; Kowalski, J (2014). Using School Gardening as a Vehicle for Critical and Creative Thinking in Health Education. Health Educator. pp. 41–48.
  12. ↑ Robinson, Muriel. "Urban Horticulture- Purpose and Prospects". The Robinson Garden at Earlscliffe, Baily, Co. Dublin, Ireland. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  13. ↑ Lake, Barbara, Taciano L. Milfront C. Gavin. "The Relative Influence of Psycho-Social Factors on Urban Gardening." Academic Search Premier. Web. 10 June 2013.
  14. ↑ Flowerpot Farming: Creating your own Urban Kitchen Garden
  15. ↑ Puchalski, Matt (2023). A Pandemic Gardening Journal: My Story of Perseverance through Gardening (1st ed.). Pennsylvania, USA: Matt Puchalski. pp. 32–70. ISBN   9798987899403.
  16. ↑ Growing greener cities in Africa (PDF). Rome: FAO. 2012. ISBN   978-92-5-107286-8.
  17. ↑ Growing Greener Cities in Africa (PDF). Rome. 2012. ISBN   978-92-5-107286-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  18. 1 2 3 Giraldo, Omar Felipe; McCune, Nils (2019-09-14). "Can the state take agroecology to scale? Public policy experiences in agroecological territorialization from Latin America". Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems. 43 (7–8): 785–809. Bibcode:2019AgSFS..43..785G. doi:10.1080/21683565.2019.1585402. ISSN   2168-3565.
  19. ↑ Altieri, Miguel A.; Toledo, Victor Manuel (July 2011). "The agroecological revolution in Latin America: rescuing nature, ensuring food sovereignty and empowering peasants". Journal of Peasant Studies. 38 (3): 587–612. doi:10.1080/03066150.2011.582947. ISSN   0306-6150.
  20. ↑ Spencer, Charles S. (September 2000). "Food Scarcity, Rural Poverty, and Agricultural Development in Latin America: Issues and Evidence". Culture & Agriculture. 22 (3): 1–14. doi:10.1525/cag.2000.22.3.1. ISSN   1048-4876.

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